























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































V 



9 * < 

i ^ 

f 

t n t /j 

K 4v f//vy 

* 



} * * * ’ VL'-v ^ V * 

*>Va- v <£ ^ ** ^ 

. PX\MJ/h o 'S'^cP c, «* «> cW 



4 <o 

^ * 'VUWNN^r* * ^ 

V '*^V ^ °0 

® " 0 .«V V/, 

* ^a——/ > » • °, o 

• y 

o 


vs 


V 

<? °y 


v ' 

» g <£*. 

• 

t r 

yyi f ^ 

♦ Qf^ljj 

K J &'\ // 

^ 


O * » 


^o 



4 O • 
o -a? v<> 

^ *>4\VQS^ ' N.' _ ~ ^yjl) J -& * ^ 

V ••••' ^ °* "’* *° 

' ^ ** ^W/T \ £ ' V 



»Pt* -' 

vk, -> 


V> ^ 

* v & 

<\ 'o'.,** Jr ^ ^^ y .T *' /% 

<f> <y ° * o * Vj . «• ' » 

* V / .vsSSW.. ° .r 



i 0 V 


4 o 

o ^ 

’ *° v ** '-?rv- / 

V>\^% %. , v .’i***. ^ ,/ .'jr&K 

* / % 

■» «x v Vj, - ’^i/'^r' > v v- •' (S' ’y * « 

<£, , 0 V c° °* o . »■ ' 9 * -(V 



**> 


•>* 




*£*» -V 






<*v. A ^ 

0 * c ° " 0 -r A 

0 /•^Stu-C' ° 0 T .' 


\0 " 4 o 

- <$* ° -c? ^ 

_ jt~ ■* ’VuWXN^ s \ % 

. 0 ^ v ^>sSS~r • 4I O 

0 ^ ••-•’ A <V ♦ 

sVV% *> v % , ’ “> 

-s-.A V ,s* 




'’V v ■•* •> 

% r . . r A <. ».. , 

-, o ^ <^ 0 ^ <. 

1 ^. «r + ji&rfrT/^? * "7 ^ 




V 

0 n/ 

• K 

<V 


l_ -T 





•*- o' . - * 

♦ H °-* v£ 

v--’’ y" %‘* 

* > V »> ’ * c\ 

^ - •_ ^ 

*$* <y * 

^ 

* 

* ^ 

4 A ^ * 




O • k 


4 O 

K V ^ 

r£. > N ^>ir r ' * <1 > O' 

<$V * * " 0 A % * 

V I. f • o 

** „** •- 
v'V 

, s ^ 

* <$> 

4 <?- 



A t • 


v>-* /V *$ 

o V . *?/ 


« 1 ■« 


^° ^ „■ 

’ / V* 

,0 **v% ^ 

• *r a <* 4 v 

«* <* A * ^ 

: ^ <? 

,* V ^ V^v\ <A 

A <* 'o . » * G x 

A > • L JO ^ c° * 





0 * .° %> 

•■ 

• <t_r o * * 

0 A o *• 

’ • O . <£\ 












/ Q ' V v 











THE 



AMERICAN MILLER, 

AND 

MILLWRIGHTS’ ASSISTANT. 


“ He who does not keep himself on the line of knowledge, will soon find this 
world ahead of him, and his associations belong to a past generation.”— Extract from 
a Speech delivered in the Senate of ihe United States, January, 1850, by 


SENATOR CAS8 OF MICHIGAN, 

TO WHOM THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR. 


By WILLIAM CARTER HUGHES. 



DETROIT: 


HARSHA HART, PRINTERS, FRANKLIN JOB OFFICE. 


18 50 








/ 



Entered according to an Act of Congress, in the year 13-10, 

By William Carter Hughes, 
in the* Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the District of Michigan. 










INTRODUCTION. 


The motto which we have adopted on the title 
page of this work, is purely American in senti¬ 
ment, and one of those original ideas of our dis¬ 
tinguished Senator, eminating from the depths 
of profound intellectual greatness, and standing 
as the star of the nineteenth century, to illumi¬ 
nate the path of the down trodden and oppressed. 
And when time has passed with those of this 
gen ration, these immortal sentiments will ever 
stand out in bold relief, to perpetuate his name 
with the sovereignty of the American people. 
And, although expressed on a very different sub¬ 
ject from which it is here introduced, as a doc¬ 
trine which we fui'v believe in, we cannot cb- 
serve any reason to forbid its adoption into the 
science of mechanics, as well as that of politics, 
or any other science beneficial to mankind. 

In its practical application to this work, we 
have been guided entirely by its principles, 


6 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


drawn from an advanced state of improvement 
which marks the age in which we live; and by 
contrasting the past with the present age, we 
can recognize that march of improvement stamp¬ 
ing as it does all branches of our national indus- 
try; and none with more satisfactory results 
than the Milling business of the United States. 
The Milling business occupies a respectable por¬ 
tion of our national industry, and gives employ¬ 
ment to a large investment of capital in all the 
principal wheat growing states of this Union, 
which contributes largely to the benefit of our 
American Farmers, in making a home market 
for Wheat and Indian Corn, the tw r o principal 
staples of American produce. 

The author of this work having spent the best 
portion of his life in the pursuit of his calling, as 
a practical Miller, begs to say, in preparing this 
work for the milling public, that his object is to 
establish a correct guide to a business which so 
little is known about, in a shape of substantial 
reference, instead of speculative theories, and 
that confined to the minds only of those w ho are 
attached to the business, either by the employ¬ 
ment of capital or otherwise. 

Special regard has also been paid to most of 
the essential improvements which have, of late. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


7 


been introduced for the benefit of the Miller. 
And we can also say, that we have omitted a 
large number of late inventions, from the belief 
of their utter worthlessness for a great many of 
the purposes for which they were designed ; and 
those ol our friends who furnished us with drafts 
and long statements of their peculir views on 
Milling, will please accept our thanks for the 
same, and this our apology for not giving them 
a place in these pages. 

We have thought proper to insert in this work 
a report made to the Commissioner of Patents 
of the United States, in the year 1848, on Bread- 
stuffs, their relative value, and the injury which 
they sustain from various causes, by Lewis C. 
Beck, M. D., an article which, of itself, highly 
sustains that gentleman’s character, for the task 
he had to perform; and also reflects much credit 
on the Commissioner of Patents, Mr. Burk, for 
the selection he made of a person fully compe¬ 
tent to perform the same. 

The report contains a scientific chemical ana- 
lisis of Wheat and Wheat Flour, with other 
important information, highly useful to all en¬ 
gaged in Milling, as well as dealers in bread- 

o O O 7 

stuffs; and we consider it one of the most use¬ 
ful and important public documents ever distrib- 


8 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


uted from the Patent Office of the United States. 

With a full assurance and hope that this work 
may prove useful to all engaged in Milling, 

I respectfully subscribe myself, 

Wm. c. hughes. 


EXPLANATION 


OF TECHNICAL WORDS USED IN THIS WORK. 

Aperture, the opening or passage through which water is 
received or discharged. 

Area, the plain surface of superficial contents. 

Cubic, equation in algebra, an equation in which the highest 
or only power of the unknown quantity is a cube. Cube root is 
the number or quantity which multiplied into itself and then 
into the product, produces the Cube. A cubic foot of water 
weighs 62 1-2 lbs. 

Equilibrium, equipois, equality of weight or force ; a state 
of rest produced by the mutual counter action of two bodies. 

Friction, the act of rubbing the surface of one body against 
another. 

Gravity, weight, heaviness—the tendency of matter towards 
its central body. Weight is the measure of gravity. 

Specific gravity, means the weight of a body compared 
with another of equal bulk, taken as the standard. Water is 
the standard for solids and liquids, and air for gas. 

Hydronamics, that science which treats of the properties 
and relations of water and other fluids, either at rest or in 
motion. 

Hydra ulicks, the science of fluids in motion; pertaining to 
hydronamics. 

Impulse, force communicated instantaneously. 

Impetus , force of motion. 


10 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


Momentum, tlie quantity of motion in a moving* body pro¬ 
portioned to the product of the quantity of matter, multiplied 
by its velocity. 

Percussion, the shock produced by the instant striking of 
bodies; the center of percussion is that point in a moving 
body about which the impetus of the parts is balanced, and 
when stopped by any force the whole motion of the revolving 
body is stopped at the same time. 

Quiescence, a state of rest. 

Radius, in geometry a right line drawn from the center of 
a circle to the periphery the semi-diameter of the circle. 

Right Angle, in geometry an angle of ninety degress or one 
fourth of a circle. 

Squared, is any number multiplied by itself. 

Theory, an exposition of the general principles of any science; 
the science distinguished from the art, and without practice. 

Urgent, pressing with necessity. 

Velocity, is that effection of motion by which a body moves 
over a certain space in a certain time. 

Viscosity, a glutinous tenacity which incline soft bodies to 
stick closely together. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER 


AND 

MILLWRIGHT’S ASSISTANT. 


PART FIRST. 

• \ 

ON THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS. 

The science of Mechanism is founded on the 
true principles of Natural Philosophy ; and of 
these principles, we shall here treat, in a plain 
simple manner; as a perfect knowledge of prin¬ 
ciples of truth and certainty in Mechanical 
Science is as essential to the practitioner of the 
Mechanic Arts, as a perfect knowledge of the 
Human Frame is to the skillful Anatomist. 

The Theory of Mechanics is essential to all 
intelligent minds ; and as far as it relates to 
the cultivation of the mind of the Practical Me- 




12 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


chanic, for whose benefit this work is designed, 
we shall contemplate the Mechanical Powers 
to be three in number, namely: The Lever, the 
Inclined Plane, and the Pulley. Some authors 
of our acquaintance, denominate them as six in 
number: the three latter, as the Wheel, Axle, 
and Screw. But it is clearly evident that the 
three latter are derivatives of the three former, 
as the wheel and axle, properly considered, is 
a revolving Lever, the Screw being a revolving 
Inclined Plane. 

The Mechanical Powers are known by the 
following terms : as weight and force , or power 
and resistance. Weight being the Resistance 
necessary to overcome, Power the Force requi¬ 
site to overcome that Resistance. When they 
are equal they are said to he in Equilibrio, 
which implies that no motion can take place. 
But when the Force becomes greater than the 
Resistance, they are not in Equilibrium as mo¬ 
tion takes place. Then Power bein<** a com- 
pound of weight, may be determined by being 
multiplied by its relative Velocity. 

That which gives motion is called Power, 
that which receives it is called Weight. 

Mechanical Powers are the most simple of 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


13 


the Mechanical Inventions, as applicable to in¬ 
crease force and overcome resistance. 

r I he first of those Powers which claim our 
attention being, in effect of mechanical utility, 
the most essential to the Millwright, namely, 

THE PRINCIPLE OF THE LEVER. 

The Lever may be considered by all mechan¬ 
ics as the leading Power of the whole science 
of Mechanism ; for example, look at the forma¬ 
tion of the entire animal creation, the super¬ 
structure of which is a beautiful illustration of 
those powers so largely developed in all ani¬ 
mal creation, every limb acting as a lever, me¬ 
chanically arranged by joints as the Fulcrums 
of central motion. 

There is no description of machinery formed 
by the machinist, but what the Principle of the 
Lever is the governing mechanical power. The 
effect of which may either increase or decrease 
its relative power according to the manner in 
which it is applied. Then, we say, millwrights 
particularly should be well acquainted with the 
Natural Laws by which the powers of this en¬ 
gine are accurately demonstrated. 

The Lever we must suppose to be composed 

l* 


14 THE AMERICAN MILLER. 

of some inflexible body as wood or metal and 
although differing in form in the various me¬ 
chanical machines, is always governed by the 
same laws of Central Motion. This central mo¬ 
tion in the common Lever is calculated from 
where the press or fulcrum is attached, which is 
called the Center of Motion, the Lever being 
capable of turning easily on that point. 

When the Lever projects on either side of 
the fulcrum, the projections are mechanically 
called Arms, from which we derive the power 
of the engine. When the fulcrum stands be¬ 
tween the Weight and the Power, by the fol¬ 
lowing simple rules, we can easily determine 
the mechanical advantage gained •, for divide 
the weight you wish to raise by the power you 
have to apply, and the quotient is the difference 
of leverage, or 

Multiply the weight by its distance from the 
fulcrum and the power from the same point. 
Then the weight and power will be to each 
other as their products. 

Example: A weight of 1440 lbs., you wish 
to raise by a force of 701bs., the length of the 
short arm of the Lever being one foot from the 
fulcrum, what must the length of the long one 
be? The answer is 20 * feet in length, where 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


15 


the power is applied to one foot, the weight 
being attached. 

For the sake of brevity, we omit the working 
ol the question, and simply state the answer; 
as it saves the introduction of algebraic signs, 
which would only tend to lengthen the subject 
without facilitating our main object, namely, 
a proper illustration of computing the Power, 
which is the mechanical advantage gained by 
the use of all Levers of whatever form, in a 
plain manner. 

Therefore, for ascertaining the relation that 
exists between power and weight in the Lever, 
the general rule being to multiply the Power by 
its distance from the Fulcrum, being equal to 
the Weight multiplied by its distance from the 
same point, the fulcrum acting as the center of 
motion in all engines of this description. 

The analogy that exists between all machines 
whose power is obtained from the principle of 
the Lever, is very great; such machines being 
ail governed by one simple principle, which 
should be considered as the General Law of 
mechanical power : namely, the Momemtums 
of the power and Weight are always equal when 
the engine is in equilibrio. 


I 


10 THE AMERICAN MILLER. 

Momentum means the product of the weight 
of the body multiplied into the distance it 
moves, or the Power multiplied into its distance 
from the Center of Motion or into its Velocity, 
is equal to the weight multiplied into its dis¬ 
tance moved. Or the Power multiplied into its 
perpendicular descent, is equal to the Weight 
multiplied into its perpendicular ascent. 

The next Law of mechanical power, shows 
the power of the Lever and Velocity ol the 
weight moved, is always in the inverse propor¬ 
tion to each other; as the greater the Velocity 
of the weight moved, the less it must be, and 
the less the Velocity the greater the weight 
may be. 

The Lever is of four kinds; the one above 
described is the first and common kind, by 
which the greatest mechanical effect is obtain¬ 
ed, as the fulcrum or center of motion is placed 
between the Weight and Power; the nearer the 
weight the greater the power. 

The second kind of Lever is where the ful¬ 
crum is at one end and the power at the other. 
Its effective power is simply as 3 is to I, where 
in a Lever of the first kind, the effective power 
is as 12 to 1. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


17 


The third kind of Lever is where the ful¬ 
crum is at one end, the weight at the other and 
the power applied between them. 

The fourth is the Curved Lever which differs 
only in form from the others, its properties be¬ 
ing the same. 

The first and second are engines of real 
power; while the third tends to decrease pow¬ 
er in the same ratio that the others increase it, 
and are only useful to the mechanic in. obtain¬ 
ing velocity where the first mover is too slow, 
as is the case in the construction of Mills pro¬ 
pelled by water, where Over-Shot Brest, or Un¬ 
der-Snot Water Wheels are used. All wheels 
are constructed on this principle of the third 
kind of Lever. But in the construction of mills 
of modern date, they may be, in nine cases out 
of ten, all used, on the principle of Levers of 
the first kind ; which we shall clearly and sim¬ 
ply illustrate in this work, under the head of 
Water Wheels. 



2 


18 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


THE INCLINED PLANE. 

This mechanical power gives existence to a 
variety of useful machines of recent invention, 
and is used in combination with the Lever of the 
first kind, which makes it a compound machine 
of extensive use. 

The wedge is simply an Inclined Plane, and 
may be considered as one of the most uselul for 
many purposes of the mechanical powers. The 
next is the Screw, which is a revolving Inclined 
Plane, and is used for pressure and raising heavy 
weights; the screw is a spiral groove cut round 
a cylinder, and every where describing the same 
angle with its length of thread, and if unfurled 
and stretched, would form a straight inclined 
plain, the length of which would be, to its height, 
as the circumference of the cylinder is to the 
distance between two threads of the screw; for 
in making one round, the spiral rises along the 
cylinder the distance between two threads. The 
length of the plane is found by adding the square 
of the distance between the threads and extract¬ 
ing the square root of the same. As the length 
of an inclined plane is to the pitch or height of 
it, so is the weight to the power; or if the height 
of the plane be one-third its length, then one 
third of the power will raise a body up the plane 




THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


19 


by rolling, that it would take to raise it up per¬ 
pendicularly ; but it would travel three times the 
distance. The general principle is—as the height 
of the plane is to the height or angle of inclina¬ 
tion, so is the weight to the power, invariably. 


THE PULLEY. 

A Pulley is a mechanical assistant by which a 
great deal of power is obtained in a small cum- 
pass, but more convenient in accommodating the 
direction of power to that of resistance, as by 
pulling downwards we are able to draw a w eight 
upwards ; the advantage gained being twice the 
number of moveable pulleys. The system of 
pulleys is very simple, and may be ascertained 
as follows: 

To find the weight that may be raised by a 
known power and a given number of pulleys, 
fixed or stationary, multiply the power by twice 
the number of moveable pulleys, and the pro¬ 
duct is the weight the power equals. Example : 
To find the weight that a power of 180 lbs. will 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


:q 

raise by a block and tackle, the bottom or mo¬ 
veable block consisting of four pulleys, 
multiply 180 

by 8 

m 

Answer —equal to 1440 lbs. 

A single Pulley may be constructed so. that 
the weight will be as three times the power. 
When more than one rope is used, in a system 
of pulleys where the ends of one rope are fasten¬ 
ed to the support and power, and the ends of the 
other to the lower and upper blocks, the weight 
is to the power as 4 to 1. The principal objec¬ 
tion to this machine, is the loss of power by fric¬ 
tion of the pulleys. 


MOTION. 

Motion always is the effect of impulsive force, 
or the act of changing place. In mechanical en¬ 
gines it is understood as the act of transmitting 
power, or the means by which power is distribu¬ 
ted. Equality or inequality of motion, is as the 
diameters of the wheels by which it is trans¬ 
mitted. The relative velocity of wheels is as the 





THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


21 


number of cogs contained in each wheel. To 
find the relative velocity or number of revolu¬ 
tions of the last wheel to one of the first: Rule, 
divide the product of the cogs of the wheels that 
are drivers by the product of the driven, and the 
quotient is the number. 

To find the number of cogs in a train of wheels 
to produce a certain velocity; as the velocity 
required is to the number of cogs in the driven, 
so is the velocity of the driver to the number of 
cogs in the leader. To find the proportions that 
the velocities of the wheel in a train should bare 
to each other: Rule, subtract the less velocity 
from the greater, and divide the remainder by 
one less than the number of wheels in the train, 
the quotient is the number, rising, in arithmetical 
progression, from the less to the greater velo¬ 
city. 

Before we dismiss the subject of Motion, we 
shall now consider the first principles by which 
Motion is obtained and governed, namely, ab¬ 
solute and relative. 

Absolute Motion is that pertaining to the re- 

* 

moval of material bodies from place to place, 
and governed entirely by the principles ot natur¬ 
al philosophy, and pertaining only to the theory 
of mechanics; for in practical mechanics we 


22 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


have to do with relative motion only, which con¬ 
sists in the difference of time occupied by the 
motion of different bodies, as time is the speci¬ 
fic measure of its velocity. There are but few 
branches of the mechanic arts which are so es¬ 
sential to the Millwright, as a proper knowledge 

of the laws which govern and on which the prin¬ 
ciples of Mechanical Motions are based, as the 

trade consists in the use, construction and ar¬ 
rangement of engines of moving power, which 
in mills is the force to move and facilitate the 
different manufactures for which they are ap¬ 
plied. 

Then the first thought of the practical mechan¬ 
ic should be, how to construct and arrange his 
machinery, so that the power which he has to 
apply may be used in the best possible mode of 
construction and arrangement of his machinery, 
on combined scientific and practical principles 
of mechanical economy. 

The next idea to be considered, is one of me¬ 
chanical importance, namely, that as Motion in¬ 
creases Power decreases. This is what may be 
considered one of those self-evident facts appar¬ 
ent in the very nature of all engines that can pos¬ 
sibly be constructed; and which is also evident 
from the first principle of the Lever, when in 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


23 


equilibrium, as the power multiplied into its ve¬ 
locity or distance moved, is equal to the weight 
multiplied into its velocity or distance moved. 

h rom these facts we see the necessity 
of guarding ourselves, as much as possible, 
against every absurd and unphilosophical prac¬ 
tice of many millwrights of the present day, to 
wit, building mills with double gearing when sin¬ 
gle would be better ; for single geared mills are 
always cheaper in their construction, easier kept 
in repair, and, when properly constructed, are as 
powerful as the best double geared mills, in the 
most favorable situations. 

We suppose there are many who may differ 
with us in this opinion, and that we shall be obli¬ 
ged to present authority, to convince and es¬ 
tablish our peculiar views in this particular. 
This we hope to do under its appropriate head 
of Water Wheels. 

All must admit that double gearing diminishes 
power, by the increased resistance to motion, 
as that of friction ; as the more machinerv used 
for a given purpose, the more it tends to com¬ 
plication, and the increasing of the power-de¬ 
stroying agent, friction. It must be admitted, 
also, that no power can be obtained by the ad¬ 
dition of engines, while the velocity of the body 


24 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


moved remains the same. And machinery in¬ 
quiring a different velocity, where the driving 
power is the same, (as is the case in flouring 
mills, the motion being as varied as the differ¬ 
ent useful machines required in manufacturing 
grain,') should be attached as near as possible 

o s 

to the first moving wheel, as the greater the 
distance from the first driving wheel, the greater 
the force of resistance to motion, and produces 
a constant tendency to equilibrium, in all ma¬ 
chines requiring a great velocity. 


CENTRAL FORCES. 

Bodies moving round a central point have a 
tendency to fly off in a straight line. This ten¬ 
dency is called the centrifugal force. It is op¬ 
posite to the centripetal force, or that power 
which maintains a body in its curved state. 
Centrifugal force flies from the center, centri¬ 
petal force to the center, and are called central 
forces. 

There is no real power attached to those for¬ 
ces called central forces, they being only tbe ef¬ 
fect of the power which gives motion to all bo- 




THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


25 


dies, and can neither add to or diminish the 
power of any mechanical or hydraulic engine, 
unless it be by friction, when water is the mov- 
ing power, and the machine changes its direction. 
The centrifugal forces of two unequal bodies, 
moving with the same velocity, and at the same 
distance from the central body, are to one anoth¬ 
er as the respective quantities of matter in the 
two bodies. 

The centrifugal forces of two equal bodies, 
w hich perform their revolutions around the cen¬ 
tral body in the same time, but at different dis¬ 
tances from it are to one another as their res¬ 
pective distances from the central body. The 
centrifugal forces of two bodies which perform 
their revolutions in the same time, and whose 
quantities of matter are inversely, as their dis¬ 
tances from the center, are equal to one anoth¬ 
er. The centrifugal force of two equal bodies 
moving at equal distances from the central bo¬ 
dy, but with different velocities, are to one anoth¬ 
er as the squares of their velocities. 

The centrifugal forces of two unequal bodies, 
moving at equal distances from the center, with 
different velocities, are to one another in the 
compound ratio of their quantities of matter and _ 

the squares of their velocities. 

2 * 


2G 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


The centrifugal forces of two equal bodies, 
moving with equal velocities at different dis¬ 
tances from the center, are inversely as their 
distances from the center. 

The centrifugal forces of two unequal bodies 
moving with equal velocities, at different dis¬ 
tances from the center, are to one another as 
their quantities of matter multiplied by their re¬ 
spective distances from the center. 

It should be considered, that this central force 
communicates no real power, it being only the 
effect of power which gives motion to a body, 
and can neither increase or diminish the power 
of any mechanical engine. 


FRICTION, OR RESISTANCE TO MOTION. 

The greater part of all that is yet known with 
certainty, respecting the laws and properties 
which govern Friction, is founded upon practi¬ 
cal experiments, instituted on a large scale and 
submitted to a great variety of trials, by some 
of the most eminent philosophers of the last 
century. 




THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


27 


M. Colomb, member of the Academy of Sci¬ 
ence at Paris, and Professor Vince of the Uni¬ 
versity of Cambridge, have written the most 
scientific and accurate treatises on the Natural 
Laws of Friction j by which we are informed 
that friction does not increase with the increase 
of rubbing surfaces, or, in other words, how¬ 
ever the magnitude of the surface of contact 
may vary, the friction will still remain the same, 
so long as the pressure is unchanged. 

Friction supposes moving or tending to move 
on the surface of another, or in words more ex¬ 
plicit, occasioned by the uniting of bodies whose 
velocity is sufficiently great to produce friction. 
There are three ways in which one surface can 
move upon another, in each of which friction 
acts differently. 

1. When one body slides upon the plain sur¬ 
face of another body. 

2. When one body being cylindrical, rolls 
upon the surface of another body. 

3. when a solid cylinder is inserted in a hol¬ 
low cylinder of greater diameter, and being 
pressed in any direction with a certain force, 
revolves with it. 

Colomb has satisfactorily established by re¬ 
peated experiments, all of which were confirm- 


28 


THE AMERICAN MILLEli. 


ed by the experiments of others, that under the 
same circumstances the friction of one surface 
moving upon another, is in exact proportion to 
the pressure used and with which the surfaces 
are urged together. 

Colomb, Ximenes, and \ ince, in their expe¬ 
riments respecting the Laws and Properties 
which govern Friction, assert that when any 
substance has several faces of different magni¬ 
tudes, the friction will be the same on whatever 
face it is placed, except in an extreme case, 
when they found a slight deviation from the 
law ; when the pressures used were extremely 
intense, it was found that the friction did not 
increase in quite so fast a proportion as the 
pressure. The deviation from the law was 
so inconsiderable, and happened only in such 
extreme cases, that it might be for the most 
part unnoticed. 

When one cylinder rolls upon the surface of 
another body, the friction is in proportion to the 
pressure. While with cylinders of the same 
substance, having different diameters but equal 
pressures, the friction is inversely as the diam¬ 
eters. Again, cylinders of the same substance, 
differing both in diameter and pressure, the 
friction is directly as the pressure, and inverse- 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


29 


ly as the diameters, or in a compound of the 
direct ratio of the pressure and the inverse ra¬ 
tio of the diameters. 

When a solid cylinder is inserted in a hollow 
cylinder of a greater diameter without rolling, 
if the hollow cylinder be supposed to revolve 
around the axle, as happens in the case of a 
carriage wheel, every part of the surface of the 
box will be exposed to the effect of friction, while 
no part of the axle will suffer this effect except 
the side which comes in contact with the box, 
which is the side that is operated upon by the 
force of draft or pressure. 

Then the friction being equal to this force 
that overcomes friction and produces motion, 
multiplied by the radius of the wheel and divi- 
ded by the radius of the hollow cylinder which 
plays upon the axle, then it appears that the 
friction is greater than the preponderating 
weight; in the proportion of the radius of the 
wheel to the radius of the cylinder. 

In the years 1831, 1832 and 1853, a very 
extensive set of experiments were made at 
Mentz, by M. Morrin, under the sanction of 
the French Government, to determine as near 
as possible, the Laws of Friction, and by which 

the following were fully adduced and established. 

3 


30 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


1st, When no Urgent was interposed, the 
friction of any two surfaces, whether of quies¬ 
cence or of Motion, is directly proportioned to 
the force with which they are pressed perpen¬ 
dicularly together, so that for any two given 
surfaces of contact, there is a constant ratio of 
the friction to the perpendicular pressure of the 
one surface upon the other. While this ratio 
is thus the same for the same surfaces of con¬ 
tact, it is different for different surfaces of con¬ 
tact. The perpendicular value of it in respect 
to any two given surfaces of contact, is called 
the Co-Efficient of Friction in respect to those 
surfaces. • 

2d, When no urgent is interposed, the amount 
of the Friction is in every case, wholly indepen¬ 
dent of the extent of the surfaces of contact; so 
that the force with which two surfaces are 
pressed together being the same, their friction 
is the same whatever may be the extent of their 
surfaces of contact. 

3d, That the Friction of Motion is wholly in¬ 
dependent of the velocity of the motion. 

4th, That where urgents are interposed, the 
co-efficient of friction depends upon the nature 
of the urgent, and upon the greater or less 
abundance of the supply. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


31 


In respect to the nature or supply of the ur¬ 
gent, there are two extreme cases; that in which 
the surlaces of contact are but slightly rubbed 
with unctious matter; as, for instance with an 
oiled or greasy cloth,—and that in which a con¬ 
tinuous flow or stratum of urgent remains con¬ 
tinually interposed between the moting sur¬ 
faces of contact. 

Professor Morin found that with urgents, hog’s 
lard and olive oil, in a continues stratum be¬ 
tween surface of wood on metal, wood on wood, 
metal on metal, when in motion, have all of 
them very near the same co-efficient of friction, 
being in all cases included between 07 and OS. 

d’he co-efficient for the urgent, tallow is the 
same, except in that of metals upon metals. 
This substance seems to be less suited for me¬ 
tallic substances than the other ; and gives for 
the mean value of its co-efficient under the same 
circumstances, 10. Hence, it is evident, that 
where the extent of the surface sustaining a 
given pressure, is so great as to make the pres¬ 
sure less than that which corresponds to a state 
of perfect separation; this greater extent of sur¬ 
face tends to increase the friction by reason of 
that adhesiveness of the urgent, dependent up¬ 
on its greater or less velocity ; whose effect is 



32 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


proportioned to the extent of surface between 
which it is interposed. 

Such is a description of the experiments 
founded by M. Morrin, under the orders of the 
French Government, to determine those Laws 
of Friction, above alluded to. 


Fhe following Table shows the result of those Ex¬ 
periments on the Friction of Unctious Surfaces; 
meaning surfaces without artificial means redu¬ 
cing the friction. By M. xMorriiv. 



Co-Efficient of Friction 

SURFACES OF CONTACT. 

Friction 

Friction 


of Motion. 

of Quies’nce. 

Oak upon Oak, the fibres being parallel 



to the motion, ------ 

0.108. 

0.390 

Oak upon Elm. fibres parallel, - - 

0.136. 

0.420 

Beech upon Oak do. do. - - 

0.330. 


Wrought Iron upon Brass 

0.160. 


Wrought Iron upon Wrought Iron, - 

0.177. 


Do. do. upon Cast do. 


0.118 

Cast Iron upon Wrought Iron, 

0.143. 


Do. do. upon Oak, - - - 

0.107. 

0.100 

Do. do. upon Cast Iron, 

0.144. 


Do. do. upon Brass, 

0.132. 


Brass upon Cast Iron, - - 

0.107. 


Do. upon Brass, - 

0.134. 


Yellow Copper upon Cast Iron, 

0.115. 


?rather well tanned upon Cast Iron wet, 

0.229. 

0.267 

Do. v ” upon Brass do. 

0.244. 



■ 















THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


33 


TABLE 


of the results of Experiments on Friction with Ur¬ 
gent s interposed. By M. Morrin. 


SURFACES OF CONTACT. 

Co efficient of Friction 

Urgents. 

Friction 
of motion 

Friction of 
quiescence 

Oak upon Oak, fibres parallel, 

0.164 

0.440 

Dry Soap 

do. 

do 

0.075 

0.164 

Tallow 

do. 

do 

0.067 

V 

Ilog’s Lard 

do. 

(Jo ” perpendicular 

0.083 

0.250 

Tallow 

do. 

do 

0.072 

ii 

Hog’s Lard 

do. 

do 

0.250 

ii 

Water 

do. 

Elm, ” parallel, 

0.036 

ii 

Dry Soap 

do. 

Cast Iron, 

0.080 

J) 

Tallow 

do. 

Wrought Iron, 

0.098 

ii 

Tallow 

Elm 

Cast Iron, 

0.066 

ii 

Tallow 

Wl’o’t Iron upon Oak fibres paralcl 

0.256 

0.649 

Grease & wat* 

do. 

do ” ” 

0.214 

ii 

Dry Soap 

do. 

do ” ” 

0.085 

0.108 

Tallow 

do. 

El in ” ” 

0.078 

ii 

Tallow 

do. 

Cast Iron, 

0.103 

ii 

Tallow 

do. 

Wrought Iron 

0.082 

ii 

Tallow 

do. 

Brass, 

0.103 

ii 

Tallow 

do. 

do 

0.075 

ii 

Hog’s Lard 

do. 

do 

0.078 

V 

Olive Oil 

Cast Iron upon Cast Iron, 

0.314 

ii 

Water 

do. 

Wrought Iron, 

n 

0.100 

Tallow 

do. 

Brass, 

0.103 

11 

Tallow 

do. 

do 

0.075 

11 

Ilog’s Lard 

Brass upon Brass, 

0.058 

11 

Olive Oil 

do. 

Cast Iron, 

0.086 

0.106 

Tallow 

do. 

Wrought Iron, 

0.081 


Tallow 

Yellow Copper upon Cast Iron 

0.072 

0.103 

Tallow 

Steel upon Cast iron, 

0.105 

0.108 

i'l allow 

do. 

do. 

0.079 

ii 

Olive Oil 

do. 

Wrought Iron, 

0.093 

ii 

Tallow 

do. 

Brass, 

0.056 

ii 

Tallow 






















34 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


s- * 

Professor Morrin does not state the amount 
of pressure used in the state ot quiescence by 
which he found those results, or the Motion 
used ; consequently we may safely infer them 
to be the same in each particular case, for both 
Tables, with the Urgents and without. 

The extent of the surfaces in these experi¬ 
ments, bore such a relation to the pressure, as 
to cause them to be separated from one anoth¬ 
er throughout by an interposed stratum of the 
urgent. 

Those experiments prove of great advantage 
to the mechanic, particularly the machinist \ as 
by them we find the mode of regulating the 
different substances which produce the least 
friction. 

% referring to the first Table, we discover 
the best kinds of metals which should be used 
for Journals and Journals bearings } as brass 
and cast iron, by experiment, prove to produce 
the least friction without any urgent. And by 
reference to the Second Table, we find the ur¬ 
gent which by its use we can reduce the 
friction to the lowest point, in all kinds of 
machinery, namely, Olive Oil. Another impor¬ 
tant point, which must naturally be considered 
by the machinist, in connection with the sub- 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


35 


juct of reducing friction in all kinds of machin- 

? to produce the best results, a due regard 

should be paid to the size of the Hearings or 

Journals, as the strength of all revolving shafts 

are directly as the cubes ol their diameters, and 

inversely as the resistance they have to over¬ 
come. 

Mr. Buchanan, in his essay on the strength 
of shafts, gives the following from several ex¬ 
periments, viz: That the Fly-Wheel Shaft of a 
50 horse-power Engine at 50 revolutions per 
minute, requires to be 7 1-2 inches in diameter, 
and the cube of this diameter being equal to 
421,875, serves as a multiplier to ail other 
shafts in the same proportion ; and taking this 
as ascertained, he gives the following multipli¬ 
ers, viz : For the shafts of steam engines, wa¬ 
ter wheels, and all others connected with the 
first power, as 400 for Shafts, in mills, leading 
from the waterwheel or first mover. To drive 
small machinery, 200; for the smaller shafts 
which lead from the main uprights, 100. The 
rule being the number of horses power a shaft 
is equal to, is directly as the cube of the diam¬ 
eters and number of revolutions, and inversely 
as the above multipliers, so should the size of 
the journals be. 

Some employ 340 instead of 240 as the mul- 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 



tipliers, which gives too great a diameter to 
journals of second Movers, and it should be re¬ 
membered that these rules relate entirely to 


the size of the journals where the power applied 


is not more than 50 horse. The diameters ol 
second movers, may he found from those of the 
lirst, by multiply ing by 8 j and those of the third 
movers by multipling by 793, respectively. 

One kind of material may resist much better 
than another one kind of strain, but expose both 
to a different kind of strain, and that which was 
weakest before, may now be strongest. This, 
for illustration, is the case between cast and 
wrought iron ; the cast being stronger than the 
wrought when exposed to twisting or torsional 
strain ; but malleable iron is the strongest 
when exposed to lateral pressure. 

We here give the results of a few experi¬ 
ments on the weight necessary to hoist journals 
of an inch in diameter, close to their bearings. 


Metals. 

Pounds. 

Ounces 

Cast Steel, 

19 

9 

Cast Iron, 

9 

7 

Blister Steel, 

16 

11 

Wrought Iron, 

10 

2 

Sweedish Iron, wrought, 

9 

8 

Hard Gum Metal, 

5 

0 

Brass Vent, 

4 

10 

Copper, cast, 

4 

5 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


37 


The above rules are worthy the notice of all 
machinists, as much of that beauty pertaining to 
mechanical structure, depends on the proper 
proportioning of the magnitude of materials to 
the stress they have to bear, and what is of far 
more importance, its absolute security. It is a 
well known fact, that a cast iron rod will sustain 
more tortional pressure than a malleable iron 
rod of the same dimensions. When the strength 
of a malleable iron rod is less than that of cast 
iron to resist torsion, it is stronger than cast iron 
to resist lateral pressure; and that strength is 
as the proportion of 9 to 14. 

From these rules, it is easy for any millwright 
to make his shafts of iron best suited to over¬ 
come the resistance of friction, or any other ma¬ 
terial impediment to which they may be subject, 
and to proportion the diameters of the journals 
according to the iron of which they are made. 
The diameter of a malleable iron journal, to sus¬ 
tain an equal weight with a cast iron journal of 
7 inches in diameter, requires to be 6.04 inches 
in diameter. 

Square bars, with a journal of one inch in di¬ 
ameter and one-fourth of an inch in length, gave 
the following .results: Wrought Iron, Ulster 

Co., New York, twisted with 326 lbs., and broke 

3 * 


38 


THE AMERICAN MILLER, 


with 570 lbs. Wrought Iron, Sweeds, same 
length of lever in all cases, being thirty inches, 
twisted with 367 lbs., and broke with 615 lbs ; 
Cast Iron broke with 436 lbs. The diameters 
for light journals should be found by multiplying 
the diameters ascertained by the above rules, by 
8 and 793, respectively. 

The rules embraced in the following Table 
will be found of incalculable value to the mill¬ 
wright, in ascertaining the proper size of all 
journals, beginning w-ith the smallest size first 
movers, of the power of from 4 to 60 horse, and 
revolving from 10 to 100 revolutions per minute, 
and having 400 for their multiplier : 


THE AMERICAN MILLER 


39 


Table of Diameters of Journals of First Movers. 


REVOLUTIONS. 


•o 

o 

* 

n 

10jl5 20 

2oj30 

35 

4^ 

O 

4^ 

o 

55 |eo 

65 

70 

75 

00 

o 

00 

90 

95 

100 

4 

5-5 

4-8 

4-5 

4 • 

3 7 

3-8 ,3-5 

3,8 j 3.2 

3.E3 1 

2-9 

2-9 

2,8 

2,7 

2,6 

2,6 

2,6 

2,5 

5 

5-9 

5 l 

4-7 

4-4 

4 1 

3-9.S- 7 

3,6 

3,5 

3,3 3,3 

3,2 

3-1 

3 

3 

2,9 

2,9 

2,8 

2,7 

6 

6-3 

55 

0 

4.6 

44 4-1.4 

3.9 

3,7 

3,6 3,5 

3,5 

3-4 

3,2 

3,2 

3,2 

3 

3, 

2,9 

7 

6 6 

5 8 

5-2 

4.9 4.614.4 4-2 

4 

3 9 

3,7 3,6 

3,8 

3-7 

3-5 

3,4 

3,3 

3,4 

3,3 

3,2 

8 

6-9,6- 15-5 5- 

4-8 

4-5 4-414-2 

4,1 

4 

3,9 

3,8 

3,7 

3-6 

3,5 

3,5 

3,4 3,3 

3,2 

9 

7 ' 

63 

5-71 

5- ; > 

5- 

4.8,45 

4-4 

4,2 

4,1 

4 

3,8 

3-7 

3,7 

3,6 

3,6 

3,5 

3,4 

3,3 

10 

4 

7-4 6 6,5.9; 

5.6 

5 2 

4-9 4-7 

4,6 

4.4 

4,2 

4,1 

4 

3,9 

3,8 

3,7 

3,6 

3,6 

3,5 

3,4 

12 7-9 6.9 6.3 

5 »|5 6 

5-4 5-2 

5- 

4,8 

4,6 

4,4 

4,3 

1,2 

4,1 

4 

3,9 

3,8 

3,7 

3,6 

14 

8.3 7.2 

6-7 

6.2 

5-9 

5.6 

5.4 

5,2 

5 

4,5’4,4 

4,4 

4,3 

4,2 

4,1 

4 

4 

3,9 

38 

16 

8.7 7.6 

7.1 

6.6 

6-215.8 

5.6 

5,4 

6,2 

5 

4,8 

4,7 

4,6 

4,5 

4,4 

4,4 

4,3 

4,2 

4,1 

18 

9. 7.9 

7.5 

7. 

6-6 6.2 

5.8 

5,6 

6,4 

5,2 

5 

4,9 

4,8 

4,7 

4,6 

4,5 

4,4 

4,3 

4,2 

20 

9.3 8 1 

7 4 

7.2 

6- 1 ' 

16-4 

59 

5,7 

6,6 

5.4 

5,2 

5,1 

5 

4,8 

4,6 

4,6 

4,5 

4,5 

4d 

25 

10 . 

8 5 8. 

7-4 

7-1|6-S 

6.3 

6 

5,9 

5,6 

5,4 

5.5 

5,4 

5,3 

5,2 

5,1 

5 

4,8 

4,6 

30 

10.7 

9 3 8 4 

7.9 

7 4 7-1 

6,8 

6,6 

6,5 

6,3 

6,1 

5,9 

5,7 

5,6 

5,4 

5,3 

5,2 

5,2 

5, 

85 

11.4 

9 8,89 

8.4 

7-9.7-4 

7,1 

6,9 

6,7 

6,5 

6,3 

6,1 

5,9 

5,7 

5,6 

5,5 

5,4 

5,3 

5,2 

40 

11.7 

10.5 

19.3 

8.8 

8.3 7.8 

7,4 


7,2 

6,9 

6,7 

6,6 

6,4i6,2 

6 

5,9 

5,3 

5,7 

5,6 

45 

12. 

10.6 

9.7 

9.2 

8.7 

8.1 

7,6 

7,4 

7. 

6,8 

6,7 

6,5 

6,3 

6,2 

6,1 

6 

6,9 

5,8 

5,7 

50 

12.6 

11. 

10. 

9.3 

9. 

8.5 

8 

7,8 

7,4 

7,3 

7,2 

6,9 

6,8 

6,7 

6,5 

6,4 

6,2 

6 

5,9 

55 

13 4 

11.4 

10.4 

9 8 

9 1 

8 8 

8,4 

8 

7,5 

7,4 

7,3 

7,2 

7 

6,7 

6,6 

6,5 

6,3 

6,2 

6,1 

60 

13. 6 

,12. 

10.8 

10 , 

9.3 

9 

8,6 

8,2 

7,7 

7,6 

7,4 

7,3 

7,2 

6,9 

6,8 

6,7 

6,6 

6,4 

6,2 


This table is calculated in inches and 12ths 
of an inch, and suited for Mills and Steam En¬ 
gines of all descriptions. 


We have thought proper in this place to in¬ 
sert a correct Table of the diameters and cir¬ 
cumferences of circles, in inches, from 1 foot to 
30, together with the area and side of equal 
square, which the millwright will find \ery con¬ 
venient for all practical purposes. 















































































40 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER 


Table of the Circumferences of Circles, Areas , 
and Side of Equal Square. 


Diameters. 



I Side of 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area, 

Side of 

Circumfer. 

Area. Equal 

in 

in 

in feet 

Eq’l Sqr,. 


' Square. 

ft &in. 

ft. &. in. 

and of 1000 

in ft.& in, 




Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Feet. 




12 

in’s. 

37,699 

110,097 

10,634 

8 

25.If 

50,265 

7.04 

13 

a 

40,840 

132,732 

11,520 

9 

28.3f 

63,617 

7.1 If 

14 

a 

43,982 

153,938 

12,406 

10 

31.5 

78,540 

8.10f 

15 

a 

47,124 

176,715 

13,293 

11 

34.6f 

95,003 

9.84 

1G 

i i 

50,265 

201,062 

14,179 

12 

37.8f 

113,097 

10.7f 

17 

it 

53,407 

226,980 

15,065 

13 

40.10 

132,732 

11.6* 

18 

• <( 

56,548 

254,469 

15,951 

14 

43.Ilf 

153,938 

12.44 

19 

cl 

59,690 

283,529 

16,837 

15 

47. n 

1*76,715 

13.3i 

20 

it 

62,832 

314,160 

17,724 

16 

50.34 

201,062 

14.24 

21 

tl 

65,793 

346,361 

18,610 

17 

53.41 

226,980 

15.0! 

22 

(i 

69,115 

380,133 

19,496 

18 

56.64 

254,469 

15.Ilf 

23 

it 

72,256 

415,476 

20,384 

19 

59.8f 

283,529 

16.10 

24 

tl 

75,398 

452,390 

21,268 

20 

62.94 

314,160 

17.81 

25 

tl 

78,540 

490,875 

22,155 

21 

65.Ilf 

346,361 

18.7f 

2 G 

a 

81,681 

530,930 

23.041 

22 

69.If 

380,133 

19.5f 

27 

a 

84,823 

572,556 

23,927 

23 

72.3 

415,476 

20.44 

28 

it 

87,964 

615,753 

24,813 

24 

75.41 

452,390 

21. 3f 

29 

u 

91,106 

660,541 

25,699 

25 

78.6f 

490.875 

22.11 

30 

a 

94,248 

706,860 

26,586 

26 

81.64 

530,930 

23.04 

31 

ti 

97,389 

754,769 

27,472 

27 

84.8f 

572,556 

23.Ilf 

32 

a 

100,531 

804,249 

28,358 

28 

37.94 

615,753 

24.9 4 

33 

it 

103,672 

855,30 

29,244 

29 

91.10 

660,521 

25.8f 

34 

u 

106,814 

907,92 

30,131 

30 

94.3 

706,860 

26.7 

35 

n 

109,956 

962,11 

31,017 





36 

cl 

113,097 

1017,87 

31,903 





48 

tt 

150,796 

1309,56 

42,537 





ca 

If 

188,496 

2827,44 

53,172 





72 

If 

226,195 

4071,51 

63,806 





84 

(l 

263,894 

5541.78 

74,440 

• 













































THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


41 


GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS OF TIIE CIRCLE 

AM) ITS PARTS. 

1. A circle is a plain figure bounded by a cur¬ 
ved line, ca.led the circumference, every part of 
winch is equally distant from a certain point, cal¬ 
led the center. 

2. T lie diameter of a circle, is a straight line 
passing through the center and terminating at 
the circumference. 

3. The radius, at semi-diameter, is a straight 
line extending from the center to the circum¬ 
ference. 

4. A semi-circle is one half of the circumfer¬ 
ence. 

5. A quadrant is one quarter of the circum¬ 
ference. 

6. An arc is any portion of the circumfer¬ 
ence. 

7. A chord is a straight line joining the two 
extremes of an arc. 

8. A circular segment is the space contained 
between an arc and its chord ; the chord is some¬ 
times called the base of the segment. The 
height of the segment is the perpendicular from 
the middle of the base of the arc. 

9. A circular sector is the space contained 

4 


1 2 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


between an arc and the two radii, drawn from 
the extremes of the arc. 

10. A circular zone is the space contained be¬ 
tween two parallel'chords from its bases. 

11. A circular ring is the space between the 
circumferences of two concentric circles. 

12. A lune or crescent, is the space between 
two circular arcs which intersect each other. 

13. An elipses is a curved line, which returns 
into itself like a circle, but having two diame¬ 
ters of unequal length, the longest of which is 
called the Transverse and the shortest the Con¬ 
jugate Axis. 

Problem. To find the circumference of a 
circle, the diameter given : Multiply the diame¬ 
ter by 22 and divide by 7. Or, for greater ac¬ 
curacy: Multiply by 355 and divide the product 
by 113. 

Example: What is the circumference of a 
circle whose diameter is 40 feet. Answer, 125 
feet, 6 inches andgths. See table of circum¬ 
ferences of circles, page 38. 




THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


43 


CENTER OF PERCUSSION AND OSCILLATION. 

The center of percussion and oscillation, is 
the point in a body revolving around a fixed 
axis, so taken that when it is stopped by any 
force, the whole motion, and tendency to mo¬ 
tion, of the revolving body is stopped at the 
same time. It is also that point of a revolving 
body, which would strike any obstacle with 
the greatest effect, and from this property it 
has received the name of Percussion. The cen¬ 
ters of oscillation and percussion are generally 
treated separately ; but the two centers arc in 
the same point, and therefore their properties 
are the same : as in bodies at rest, the whole 
weight may be considered as collected in the 
center of gravity, so in bodies in motion, the 
whole force may be considered as concentrated 
in the center of percussion. • 


% 


44 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


» 


HYDROSTATICS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

In treating of the science of millwrighting, it 
has been thought proper by some authors, to 
merely notice the science of Hydrostatics, by 
simply pursuing the subject under the head of 
Hydraulics, with the assertion that hydrostatics 
treats of fluids in a state of rest only, and hydraul¬ 
ics of fluids in motion. The author of this work 
has thought proper to treat of the principles 
which govern both, under separate heads, as 
pertaining to water as a fluid only ; it being the 
only fluid in connection with air, which relates 
particularly to the millwright. 

Hydrostatics is a word formed from two Greek 
words, which signify water and the science which 
treats of the weight of bodies ; and as a hr; nch 
of Natural Philosophy, treats of the nature of 
gravity, pressure, and mode of weighing solids 
in water. 




THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


45 


V ater may be defined as a perfect fluid ; and 
the less force that is required to move the parts 
of a fluid, the more perfect is that fluid, defined 
as a body. 1 hilosophers agree that the parti¬ 
cles of the body which compose water are too 
small to be examined by the best glasses, but 
that those particles are round and smooth; as 
all experience proves that water is composed of 
small globular particles. This fact is further 
proved by some experiments made by one of the 
ablest philosophers that ever lived, and one of 
the best mathemat.cians of antiquity, Archime¬ 
des. He made a globe of gold and filled 
it with water, and closed it so accurately that 
none could escape ; the globe was then placed 
into a press and a little flattened at the sides; 
the power of compression was applied to force 
the water into a smaller space, but the result 
was the water was forced through the pores of 
the gold and stood upon the surface like drops 
of dew; which fact induced the philosopher to 
establish the idea that water was incompressible . 
Which fully establishes the fact that the parti¬ 
cles of which water is composed, are very hard; 
for if they were not sb, you can easi y conceive 
that since there are vacuities between them, as 
we assert there are, they must by very great 


46 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


pressure be brought closer together, and would 
evidently occupy less space, which is contrary 
to fact. 


ON THE UPWARD AND DOWNWARD PRESSURE 

OF WATER. 

Having examined the nature of the fluid, wa¬ 
ter ; the next subject of importance, is the up¬ 
ward and downward pressure of the fluid, being 
equal. This principle may be easily explained 
by the fact that two reservoirs of 18 feet deep 
each, may be connected by a pipe of 10 inches 
in diameter ; by filling one of the reservoirs 
with water, opening the pipe, so as to allow a 
free communication of the water between them, 
the pipe being inserted in the bottom of each, 
the water will pass from one to the other till it 
stands at the same depth in each. Fluids al¬ 
ways tend to a natural level, or curve similar to 
the earth’s convexity, every point of which is 
equally distant from the center of the earth- 
The apparent level or level taken by any instru.- 
ment for that purpose, being only a tangent to 
the earth’s circumference. The pressure of wa _ 
ter is not in a straight line, but is propagated 





THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


47 


in every direction, upwards, downwards side¬ 
ways and oblique. From which property it al¬ 
ways tends when at rest to a true level. 

The next point of importance in relation to the 

pressure of water, is the influence which exists 

' , 

between water and air, and which we denomi¬ 
nate as Atmospheric Pressure. 

It is by the afhnity which exists between the 
fluids, water and air, that we can use them as 
the motive Power in assisting mankind to ac¬ 
complish by their use what would require the 
application of animal force for mechanical pur¬ 
poses. It is by this principle of the pressure of 
air on water, by which water is raised to the 
height required, by means of the common pump. 

The pressure of the atmosphere on the sur¬ 
face of the earth, rates from 12 to 15 lbs per 
square inch \ to illustrate our subject more 
clearly, we will take up the principle of the com¬ 
mon pump ; the principle being ruled by the 

pressure of the atmosphere on the water, by 
which we are able to raise a given quantity of 

water to the height of that limited point; which 
is, if the water in a well be more than 32 or 33 feet 
from the valve, you might pump continually 
without effect; as a column of water 33 feet in 
height is equal to 15 lbs., the pressure of the 


48 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


atmosphere on every square inch, which results 


in a perfect equilibrium ot toe fluids j and in 
constructing this kind of pump, the valve Ji mid 
never be p.aced to exceed 28 teet beyond me 
level of tiie water, owing to the change vv.uch 
continually takes place in the pressure ot tne 
atmosphere. It may be proper here to state tne 
comparative difference that exists between the 
specitic gravity of water and air : One cubic 


foot ot fresh water is 800 times heavier man 
the same quantity of air at the surface ot the 
earth, supposing the Barometer to stand 30 
inches in height. 

Without this principle of Natural Philoso¬ 
phy, which treats of the pressure of the air, 
there would be no such thing as the downward 


and upward pressure of fluids, by which we are 
able to use them beneficially in all mechanical 
operations. 


SPECIFIC GRAVITY.* 

Before we enter upon the methods of obtain¬ 
ing the specific gravity of bodies, it will be right 
to premise a few particulars which it is neces¬ 
sary should be well understood : We must first 









THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


49 


understand that the specific gravity of different 
bod.es, depends upon the different quantities 
of atter, which equal bul ;s of these bodies 
Contain. As the momenta of different bodies 
are estimated by the quantities of matter when 
the velo3ities are the same, so are the specific 
gravity of bodies estimated by the quantities of 

matter when the bulks or magnitudes are the 
same. And as the relative weight of any body 
of a certain bulk, compared with the weight 
of some body taken as a standard of the same 
bulk—the standard of comparison being water, 
one cubic foot of which is found to weisdi 1000 
ounces avoirdupois, at a temperature of 60 de¬ 
grees Frahenheit, so that the weight expressed 
in ounces of a cubic foot of any body, will be 
its specific gravity—that of water being 1000. 

To determine the specific gravity : If a body 
be a solid heavier than water, weigh it first in 
air, note the weight, then immerse it in water, 
and note this weight also, then divide the bo¬ 
dy’s weight in air by the difference of the 
weights in air and water, and the quotient is 
the specific gravity of the body. If it be a solid 
lighter than water, tie a piece of metal to it. 
so that the compound may sink in water, then 
to the weight of the solid itself, in air, add the 

4 * p 


50 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


weight of the metal in water, and from this sum, 
subtract the weight of the compound in water, 
which difference makes a divisor to a dividend, 
which is the weight of the solid in air, then the 
quotent will be the specific gravity. If the bo¬ 
dy be a fluid, take a solid whose specific grav¬ 
ity is known that will sink in the fluid, then 
take the difference of the weights of the solid 
in and out of the fluid, and multiply this dif¬ 
ference by the specific gravity of the solid, then 
this product divided by the weight of the body 
in air, will give the specific gravity of the fluid. 

On this principle we have inserted a table of 
specific gravities. The columns “specific grav¬ 
ity,” represent the weight of a cubic foot in oun¬ 
ces avoirdupois. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


51 


!Table of Specific Gravities . 



Specific 

Gravity. 


Specific 

Gravity. 

Distilled Water, 

1.000 

Cork, 

0.240 

Sea Water, 

1.026 

Cast Steel, 

7.833 

Platina, 

23.000 

Wax, 

0.897 

Standard Gold, 

17.486 

Tallow, 

0.943 

Mercury, 

13.560 

Olive Oil, 

0.915 

Standard Silver, 

10.391 

Vitriol, 

1.841 

Lead, 

11.352 

Apple Tree, 

0.793 

Brass, 

8.396 

Mahogany, Spanish, 

0.852 

Copper, 

Tin, 

7.788 

Boxwood, 

0.912 

7.291 

•Logwood, 

0.913 

Cast Iron, 

7.207 

Ebony, 

1.331 

Bar Iron, 

Zinc, 

Flint Glass, 

7.788 

7.191 

3.290 

Lignum vitee. 

1.333 

Marble, 

Ivory, 

2.700 

1.825 

OF GASSES. 


Coal, 

1.250 

Hydrogen, 

0.0694 

Oil, 

0.940 

Carbon, 

0.4166 

Oak, American, 

0.900 

Steam of water, 
Carburetted Hydrogen 

0.481 

Oak, English, 

0.925 

0.9722 

Ash, white, 

0.800 

Azote, 

0.9723 

Ash, black, 

0.812 

Oxygen, 

1.1111 

Maple, hard, 

Elm, 

0.755 

0.600 

Nitric Acid, 

1.218 


The Specific Gravity of Atmospheric Air at a temperature 
of 60 degrees Frail., and Barometic column 30 inches, is, ac¬ 
cording to experiments, proved to be 1.22, which shows water 
to be 800 times heavier—the air being at its greatest density. 


f 


















52 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


HYDRODYNAMIC POWER OE 


WATER WHEELS. 


Under the head of that science called Hydro- 
namics, we shall discuss the most important prin¬ 
ciples of Water, as applied by the millwright lor 
propelling machinery, in the various modes ol 
application, by the use ol the W ater Wheel— 
an engine of real mechanical utility. I o con¬ 
struct a water wheel, by which we may use wa¬ 
ter to its greatest effect, in propelling mills ol 
various kinds, a thorough knowledge of the sci¬ 
ences of Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics, is 
indispensible to the millwright; and without the 
knowledge of those laws of natural philosophy 
which these sciences illustrate, the millwright is 
incompetent to use water on pr inciples of scien- 1 
tific economy. For a more definite and accur¬ 
ate illustration of our subject, we shall denomi¬ 
nate those important principles, as first, second 
and third : first principles of all fluids, more par¬ 
ticularly water, are governed by natural laws; 
second principles are governed by the applica¬ 
tion of the degree of science used in those prin¬ 
ciples; and the third, consists in the inventive 
genius of mankind, as developed in the various 
machines constructed by his hands, by which he 








THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


53 


uses water as the propelling power of those ma¬ 
chines. 

Before we speak of the construction of any of 
those machines, we shall first illustrate two pow¬ 
ers, when used as such, which are innate princi¬ 
ples of the non-elastic fluid, water—namely, ac¬ 
tion and reaction. The latter principle, as a 
power, has been established and acknowledged 
by all writers on the subject, whether mechanics 
or philosophers; but its use in connection with 
the first or direct action of water, is as yet but 
little known to the most enlightened on the sub¬ 
ject of Hydraulics. 


ON THE ACTION AND REACTION OF WATER. 
AS APPLIED TO WATER WHEELS. 

What we mean by the action of water, is the 
first impulse communicated to either a water 
wheel or other body, by being exposed to the 
force of a column of water from any perpendicu¬ 
lar height; and if that force be communicated 
with that body at right angles, the effect by im¬ 
pulse will be the greatest. It is by the action of 

impulse alone, undershot water wheels are pro- 

5 




54 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


pelled. The reaction power of water is obtain¬ 
ed by the whirling vortex of the water, and only 
obtained by a wheel made suitable to the motion 
of the water, when used in connection with the 
direct action of water on a wheel made express¬ 
ly to suit those two actions of the fluid. For all 
purposes where motion is required, in the vari¬ 
ous mechanical engines, the greatest power pos¬ 
sible, can be obtained by water applied in this 
manner. The direct action of water by impulse 
when applied to a wheel receives a change of 
motion, by the resistance of the burden to be 
overcome. As the stroke by impulse is com¬ 
municated to the bucket of the wheel, only one 
half of the power of the column of water is re¬ 
ceived, until the other action is communicated 
from the wheel to the body of water in which it 
stands. But as soon as the wheel moves it forms 
a whirling vortex, which acts in a contrary di¬ 
rection to the first action of the water by im¬ 
pulse ; consequently, by this means we receive 
a double action of the same water, which gives 
a double power. 

But the only difficulty existing, is in a proper 
knowledge, by the millwright, how to construct 
a water wheel so that those two powers may be 
united as they should be, to form a perfect ac- 




TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


55 


tion on two separate sections of the water wheel. 
As it is impossible to combine direct action and 
reaction on the same section or bucket, hence 
the reason why so many have failed in their pur¬ 
pose, in the use of the reaction water wheel. 
W ithin the last ten or fifteen years, a numerous 
tribe of reaction water wheels have sprung into 
existance, all aiming at the main object, if pos¬ 
sible, to supercede each other in using the least 
complement of water to perform the greatest 
amount of work. But from a personal examina¬ 
tion of their construction, 1 have found that the 
reaction principle is more fully perfected in the 
most of them, without the slightest appearance 
of any knowledge of any other principle but re¬ 
action alone. Such wheels are only adapted to 
streams where there is no necessity for econo¬ 
my in the use of water. I have seen other 
wheels, again, where the opposite principle was 
the only one used; and in back water, could not 
be used at all. The latter kind are acted upon 
by the impulse of the water only, and only pro¬ 
duces, like the undershot wheel, half of the ef¬ 
fect due to the water used. To unite direct ac¬ 
tion and reaction on the same wheel, the buck¬ 
ets require to be shaped as different as the ac¬ 
tion of the water is different and contrary; for 


56 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


the action, by impulse, of the water should act 
on the wheel in a manner which will communi- . 
cate the greatest force, on the section on which 
it acts, by its stroke; and in all cases the sur¬ 
face of the upper buckets should be equal, in 
area, to the column of water acting against 
them. 

The Reaction principle is purely an Ameri¬ 
can invention for using water on wheels, and 
was exported from America to Europe about 
the year 1828, according to an account of the 
introduction of this principle of reaction, as we 
find it noticed at some length in a scientific jour¬ 
nal, published in Paris ; and from the description? 
we suppose it to be the first American model, 
as invented by Ferguson about the year 1828. 
The wheel is extensively used in France, and 
called there the Tourbillion or Turbine Water 
Wheel, and derives its name from the principle 
by which the power is obtained—namely—the 
whirling Vortex. But I discover they continue 
tSie same error in France as well as in America 
in applying the water to act on those wheels by 
reaction only, and also in applying the water 
at the center of the wheel and having the dis¬ 
charge at the verge. This is w r rong, and con¬ 
trary to the mechanical principle of using the 








THE AMERICAN MILLER. 57 

wheel as a lever of the first kind; where the 
power should be used at one end, the weight 
being at the other and the axis being the ful¬ 
crum of central motion. # 

We also wish to notice, what must be seen 
l >y every person in its proper light, who will 
take time to examine the subject and test it by 
experience, as we know it to be unphilosophi- 
cal : It is the mode that many of the inventors 
and venders of reaction water wheels have, of 
placing them to work on horizontal shafts instead 
of vertical. We presume all should be aware 
that when a water wheel is working horizontal¬ 
ly, the motion tends to destroy, to a great ex¬ 
tent, the re-action pow er of the water. Skeptics 
to this doctrine very naturally ask, why? We 
answer by saying experience and practice on 
the subject tells that it is the direction in w hich 
the wheel runs that the greatest amount of sur¬ 
face of contact is operated upon by the w ater. 
Those who favor this horizontal mode of appli¬ 
cation, tell us that from the center of the axis 
on which the wheel is hung, is just sufficient to 
produce the greatest maximuifi effect of the re¬ 
action powder of the w^ater. To this we say, 
that only having one-half of the wheel submerg¬ 
ed, you can obtain but one-half of the effect of 



58 TIIE AMERICAN MILLElt/ 

what I call the action of the current of the wa¬ 
ter, passing as it does through the drat boxes 
or casing in which the wheel runs, and the pow¬ 
er of which would be simply in proportion, as 
the wheel comes in contact with the water. It 
must also be remembered that the water on 
those wheels never changes its direction, only 
in cases where the wheel carries it back, which 
is more or less always the case where the buck¬ 
et on which it acts is constructed op a very short 
curve ; this is the case with nine-tenths of 
wheels of this description. In applying the wa¬ 
ter to the wheel, its action is in a tangent with 
the issue, so that the vortex must be also in the 
same line, and nothing of the whirling motion 
that would take place if the wheel was working 
in a vertical position. To make this subject 
plainer, we say, that a horizontal wheel, run¬ 
ning in a tangent, the water can have no other 
direction, (only in the case above referred to,) 
than that of a straight line, which the position 
of the wheel describes to contrary lines, which 
completes the formation of the whirling vortex 
motion given to the water by the wheel after 
the wheel has received the percussion stroke of 

the water. This principle makes the reaction 
power perfect, if the wheel is placed to work 
properly, which should be as follows : 


4 







THE AMERICAN MILLER. 59 

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMBINATION 
REACTON WATER WHEEL, 

And the Method of Applying the Water for Pro - 
pelling them , to produce the greatest effect. 

The great mechanical effect of Reaction Wa¬ 
ter Wheels, is in proportion to the principles of 
scientific knowledge displayed in their construc¬ 
tion. To enable us to rank them in the order 
of first class wheels, from our remarks on the 
Hydrodynamic power of reaction wheels, we 
have endeavored to explain all the leading prin¬ 
ciples which seem to us to be absolutely neces¬ 
sary for the millwright to understand, so as to 
give him an adequate idea of the groundwork or 
root of those principles; and also pointing out 
all erroneous forms of construction and applica¬ 
tion of what might he useful, if applied as science 
nobly dictates, in those wheels alluded to in our 
previous remarks. 

The great superiority of the combination of 
power, in applying water on reaction wheels, 
requires but to be seen, to be universally adopt¬ 
ed and established, in preference to the com¬ 
bined and effective power of water used on the 
overshot wheel, the defects in which we shall 
establish under its proper head. In the over- 



60 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


shot water wheel, there are at best but two me¬ 
chanical principles which can be depended upon, 
as effective in their application, namely, that ot 
the lever of the second kind, and the use of the 
water by its gravity; while the reaction wheel 
combines three —that is, when the w r ater is ap¬ 
plied like the overshot, at the verge. Although 
differing from the overshot in the principle of 
the lever, as the reaction wheel acts as a lever 
of the first kind, which, according to the princi¬ 
ple of the lever of the first kind, as explained in 
Mechanics, page 13, whose power is as 12 to 1, 
and the former wheel, according to the lever as 
explained in Mechanics, page 16, is but 3 to 1. 
So much for the advantage gained in favor of 
reaction wheels on the first principle—namely, 
the lever. 

The second principle is the application of the 
water by its gravity and pressure; the third, 
the combining of the re-action force of the water 
with the first or direct action, as explained on 
page 53. The proper method of constructing a 
re-action water wheel, to act on those princi¬ 
ples, is as follows : 

First let the Millwright consider what direc¬ 
tion is best for him to conduct the water on his 
wheel; (we recommend it to issue from the head 







THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


61 


at right angles with the buckets.) Then we ask, 
what position should the bucket of the wheel be 
in with the axis of the wheel, to receive the 
greatest effect of the stroke by the direct action 
or percussion power of the water? We an¬ 
swer, transversely, so that the surface of the 
bucket next the water should describe a perpen¬ 
dicular plane, measuring the same width as the 
apperture through which the water issues on the 
wheel; then the bucket would meet the water 
at right angles. But the reaction bucket must 
be attached and stand in the form of an inclined 
plane, gradually inclining from its connection 
with the transverse bucket, from the lower edge 
of the top bucket to its terminus. The angle 
of inclination requires to be in accordance with 
the length of the bucket. The greater the length 
of bucket, the greater the angle of inclination; 
but in no case should the inclination be less 
than 45°. 

When the wheel is completed, its bottom 
should resemble an ordinary screw, the bottom 
ier of buckets forming the thread; and in pla¬ 
cing them to work, they should be set over a pit 
connecting with the tail race, at least two feet 
in depth; and the tail race requires to be suffi¬ 
ciently deep that the water from the wheels may 


62 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


Hot be impeded by any unnecessary resistance. 
For mills of four run of stones, where it would 
be necessary to use five of these combination 
and reaction wheels, the tail race ought never 
to be less than twelve feet wide, and two feet 
eight inches in depth. From what we learn of 
the nature of water, under the head of Hydro- 
statics, page 44, we find it necessary to con¬ 
struct water wheels out of material that will re- 
sist the water’s penetrating into the wheel, as it 
is the case where wood is used in their construc¬ 
tion. The introduction of cast iron is a most 
essential improvement, in as much as the resist¬ 
ance from friction is about one-third less than 
wood, besides their great durability 5 and w here 
the wheels are well protected by racks placed in 
the flumes to keep out all obstructions, thej will 
last a life time. 

This wheel as described, is the one patented 
by Mr. Lansing, of Indiana, some few years 
since, and is well known to the author of this 
work, as being a superior first class wheel; in¬ 
finitely superior to the over-shot, for many rea¬ 
sons. We regret exceedingly not being able to 
have furnished drawings of it in time for this 
volume. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 63 

/ 

A TABLE OF THE VELOCITIES 

of the Combination Reaction Water Wheels per 
minute, from Heads of from Four to Thirty feet, 
calculated at the maximum point of effect, or 
what is generally called “ the working point f 
being one-third less than the greatest velocity oj 
the water, for wheels of the following size: 


Diameters— in feet and inches. 


Head 

2 


3 

ail 

4 

4£| 

5 I 

5^ | 

6 j 

6i 1 

7 |7*| 

8 

4 

122 

98 

81 

70 

61 

54 

49 

44 

40 

3 7 j 

35 

33 

30 

5 

137 

L09 

91 

78 

68 

60 

54 

49 

45 

42 

39 

36 

34 

G 

149 

120 

100 

85 

75 

66 

60 

54 

50 

46 

42 

40 

37 

7 

160 

129 

107 

92 

81 

71 

61 

58 

53 

49 

46 

43 

40 

8 

173 

138 

115 

98 

86 

76 

69 

62 

57 

53 

49 

46 

43 

0 

184 

147 

122 

105 

92 

81 

73 

66 

61 

56 

52 

49 

46. 

10 

194 

154 

128 

110 

97 

86 

77 

70 

64 

59 

55 

51 

48 

11 

2 03 

162 

135 

115 

101 

90 

81 

73 

67 

62 

57 

54 

50 

12 

212 

169 

141 

121 

106 

94 

84 

77 

70 

65 

60 

56 

53 

13 

220 

176 

147 

126 

110 

98 

88 

80 

73 

67 

63 

59 

55 

14 

229 

183 

153 

131 

114 

102 

91 

83 

76 

70 

65 

61 

57 

15 

237 

189 

158 

135 

118 

105 

94 

86 

79 

72 

67 

63 

59 

10 

245 

196 

163 

140 

122 

109 

98 

89 

81 

75 

70 

65 

61 

17 

252 

201 

168 

144 

126 

112 

100 

91 

’84 

77 

72 

67 

63 

18 

2601207 

173 

148 

130 

115 

103 

94 

86 

80 

74 

69 

65 

19 

266 

213 

177 

152 

133 

118 

106 

97 

88 

82 

76 

71 

66 

20 

274 

219 

182 

156 

137 

121 

109 

100 

91 

84 

78 

73 

68 

21 

281 

224 

187 

160 

140 

124 

112 

102 

93 

86 

80 

75 

70 

22 

288 

229 

191 

164 

143 

127 

114 

105 

95 

88 

82 

76 

72 

23 

294 

234 

195 

167 

146 

131 

117 

107 

97 

90 

84 

78 

73 

24 

300 

239 

199 

170 

149 

133 

1 19 

109 

99 

92 

85 

79 

74 

25 

307 

245 

204 

175 

153 

136 

121 

111 

102 

94 

87 

82 

76 

26 

313 

249 

208 

178 

156 

138 

124 

113 

104 

96 

89 

83 

78 

27 

318 

254 

212 

182 

159 

141 

127 

116 

106 

98 

91 

85 

79 

28 

324 

259 

216 

185 

162 

144 

129 

118 

108 

100 

92 

86 

81 

29 

330 

263 

219 

188 

164 

146 

131 

120 

110 

101 

94 

88 

82 

30 

335 

268 

223 

191 

167 

149 

134 

123 

112 

103 

95 

89 

84 









































































64 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


A Fable of the number of inches of Water neces¬ 
sary to drive One Run of Stones , with all the 
necessary machinery , for Grist and Saw Mills , 
which will be found convenient for all practical 
purposes , under heads of water from 4 to 30 feet . 


Eight 

of 

Head, 

feet 

Size of 
Stone, in feet 

Horse 

power 

Horse 

power 

Number of Saws being One 

-* 

4 1-2 

4 

4 

558 

460 

6 

5 


5 

363 

300 

5 > 

55 

The same quantity of wa- 

G 

311 

250 

5 > 

55 

ter that is here used for a 

7 

245 

200 

55 

yy 

four-foot Stone, is sufficient 

8 

190 

160 

>5 

yy 

for One Saw ; and where a 

9 

163 

130 

55 

yy 

greater number of either 

10 

137 

112 

5 > 

yy 

Saws or Stones are required, 

11 

122 

102 

55 

55 

you should double thequan- 

12 

107 

89 

V 

55 

tity, in proportion to the 

13 

95 

80 

yy 

• 

yy 

number, as in the case of 

14 

83 

70 


yy 

four run of Stones, you re- 

15 

75 

62 

55 

55 

quire four wheels, with the 

16 

68 

57 

• 

yy 

same number of inches for 

17 

62 

51 

5 ? 

5 > 

each size Stone, as per table. 

18 

57 

47 

55 

55 

But in all cases, for Merchant 

19 

52 

44 

V 

55 

Flouring Mills, you require 

20 

48 

41 



an extra wheel, which all the 

21 

45 

37 

55 

55 

Machinery should be attach- 

22 

43 

35 

5 > 

>> 

ed to, with about one-half 

23 

39 

32 


>> 

the power as calculated for 

24 

37 

30 

55 


one run of 4i feet Stones. 

25 

35 

29 

55 

55 


26 

32 

27 

55 

55 


27 

31 

26 

” 

55 


28 

29 

24 

yy 

»5 


29 

28 

23 

yy 

>> 


30 

26 

22 

55 

55 



NOTE. A horse power is considered equal to 33,000 lbs. 
raised one foot high. 





























THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


65 


OYER-SHOT OR BREAST WHEELS. 

The following Table shows the required length of over-shot 
or breast wheels, on falls from 10 to 30 feet, to drive from 
one to four run of four and a half feet stones, with all the 
necessary machinery' for a Merchant Flouring Mill. The 
column marked “ Fall,’’ shows the number of feet fall on 
the breast wheel or the diameter of the over-shot. 


Diameter of 

Number of run of Stones 


over shot in 



Fall 

1 

2 

3 

4 



Length 





i n 

in feet 

H 

twice 

3 limes 

4 times 

Multiply the number of 

JL U 

1 1 

1 

64- 




run required by the length 

12 

u 4 

5f 




as stated in the Table: 

13 

H 




Example : 

14 

5 





15 

44 




What should the length 

16 

*i 




of either a breast or an 

17 

4 




over-shot Wheel be, to 

18 

4 




drive 3 run of stones, on a 

19 

3f 




fall of 18 feet—look at 18 

20 

34 


t 


feet, the height of the head, 

21 

3i 




then we have opposite 4 

22 

3i 




feet, for 1 run, which mui- 

23 

3 




tiplied by 3, produces 12 

24 

3 




feet, the length required. 

25 

2 2 




The same quantity of 

26 

2f 




water used on the Combi- 

27 

24 




nation Reaction Wheel, 

28 

H 




will suit the Breast and 

29 

H 




Overshot, beginning at 10 

30 

H 




feet head. 


It is desirable that the Millwright should pos¬ 
sess easy rules which will answer the purpose 
of practice rather than theory. The first table 

will be found acceptable, and as it gives the 

6 
























66 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


velocity for all the wheels of the re-action and 
combination principle, where the water is dis¬ 
charged as it should be at the center. 


HOWD’S IMPROVED DIRECT ACTION 
WATER WHEEL, 

with directions for using the same , by S. 13. llowd. 

This is a wheel which, when properly located, 
is admirably adapted for mills of all kinds, 
working the water on the tourbillion principle, 
being the whirling vortex, or better known as 
reaction principle. 

Its superiority over the old fashioned reac¬ 
tion wheel consists in applying the water on the 
wheel at the verge and discharging it at the 
center, by which you use the wheel as a lever 
of the first kind, instead of applying the water 
at the center and discharging it at the verge 
as by the old fashioned reaction, by which its 
power is reduced to the lever of the third kind, 
and as a natural consequence, takes as much 
more water to perform the same business as 
the difference in the mechanical principles of 
the lever vary from each other. 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


67 


This wheel can be used to good advantage 
on low sluggish streams* where back water is 
prevalent. We heir give a draft of the wheel, 
made by Stephen Ales, and used by him, with 
directions for making the same by Mr. Ilowd, 
the original inventor. 

DIRECTIONS 

FOR MAKING THE SEVERAL PARTS OF HOWD’S 
LATEST IMPROVED WATER WHEEL, 

AND SETTING IT UP. 

Submerge the wheel so that no part of it will 
be above the water in low water. The step¬ 
ping should be concave and convex, the con¬ 
cave in the shaft. The stepping should be from 
4 to 6 inches in diameter, the convex should be 
made of hard maple, well seasoned ; make it 
in a proper shape, then let it soak in tallow at 
least three days, blood warm, let the tallow 
cool before you take it out j then bore several 
three-eight holes, beginning without the knot, 
in two or three places, upon a curvalinear line 
running to the periphery of the step, fill them 
with bar lead ; make the concave of cast iron 
highly polished. 

The disk should be made of two inch plank, 
double face it on both sides, and firmly pin them 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


68 

together. Spot it on the under side in the cen¬ 
ter, bolt it fast to the flange of the eye on the 
upper side, then hang it on the shaft, on a false 
step ; scribe the top and bottom, work off the 
top, strike your circle for the out edge of the 
risers, work it off bevelling under half inch ; 
lay out the places for the risers, unhang it, turn 
it over, work off the bottom, turn it back, put 
on the risers ; let in the laps of the lower rims 
of the water wheel *, bore for the bolts that hold 
the wheel to the risers, mark the cants, and let 
them by. 

The directions given above are intended 
where an iron shaft, iron eye and flange are 
used, whereby the disk is attached to the 
shafts. 

When a wooden shafts is used, the form of 
making the disk and attaching it to the shaft, 
should be varied : Dress your planks onone side 
and pin them together slightly, then work on 
some plank from four to six inches thick, on the 
under side in the center, at least one half the 

dia reter of the disk, bevelled up to an edge, 
and firmly pin the whole together. 

Hang the disk with reference to the under 
side. It is necessary that the disk should be 
hung as low down on the shaft as possible and 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 69 

in such a manner as will prevent it from work- 
mg up and down; in order to do this efficiently, 
four or more straps of iron with a hook on one 
end, should be firmly spiked on to the shaft 
with hooks as low down as you wish to hand 
the bottom of the disk, then wedge it from the 
upper side and fasten the wedges in by means 
of pins inserted into the shaft through the upper 
end of the disk and through the wedges on an 
angle of about forty-five degrees, then work off 
the top and periphery, as above described. 

S. B. HOWD. 


The above directions would require a model 
of the wheel and its parts, to give an adequate 
idea of constructing it, without which, no mill¬ 
wright who may not be acquainted with the 
wheel, should be expected to construct one per¬ 
fectly. 

The draft accompanying this article gives a 
full view of the wheel with the exception of the 
disk or top part. As to the number of Buckets 
necessary for a wheel, it is left entirely to the 
option of the millwright, as experience teaches 
that the more water you wish to discharge, the 

more buckets will be necessary—from eight to 

6 * 


70 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


twenty-four. Mr. Howd recommends the num¬ 
ber of shouts in a wheel of seven and eight feet 
in diameter, to be twenty-four. 


THE AUTHOR. 


HOWD’S PATENT 

DIRECT ACTION WATER WHEEL. 



This draft represents the top ™w of a Reaction Central Discharging Water 

Wheel. No. 1, represents a Perpendicular Shaft; No. S, the Aims. o. , « 

Hangers io snJpen'd the Rims; No. 4, the Rims and Buckets; So. *, Bulk Head; 
No. 6, Spouts to conduct the water into the Wheel; No. 7, Grcular Gate. 

No. 9, Apron. 






















iw 

be 

ia 

























PART SECOND, 


OF 


THE AMERICAN MILLER 


AND 


MILLWRIGHT’S ASSISTANT. 







# 


\ 


THE AMERICAN MILLER 


AND 

MILLWRIGHT’S ASSISTANT. 


PART SECOND. 


REMARKS ON THE CULTURE OF GRAINS, 

WHICH FORM THE STAPLE BREADSTUFFS OF THE 

UNITED STATES. 

There is no country on this globe which is so 
well adapted for the cultivation of Wheat and 
Indian Corn, as the fertile soil of the United 
States—the quality of which seems to be high¬ 
ly impregnated with those nutricious substan¬ 
ces so necessary to the production of these two 
cerial Grains. Consequently the high reputa¬ 
tion which American breadstuffs sustain in for¬ 
eign markets, enables the American Miller to 
rival all competition, in the manufacture of bread- 




71 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


stuffs, either in quality or quantity; as the sur¬ 
plus quantity of grain annually grown in the 
United States, bids fair to surpass all the de¬ 
pendencies of European cultivation. 

Not many years ago large quantities of grain 
were imported from Europe to the United States, 
and as late as the year 1839, and sold to good 
account—being manufactured in the Atlantic 
cities. At the period referred to, the u Great 
West” was comparatively unknown, and the 
boundary of Western civilization was supposed 
to exist, by our eastern brethren, in rather a 
limited'degree, somewhere within the confines 
of the State of Illinois—it being but about four 
years previous, that it was exchanged from sav¬ 
age wilds to the beautiful and cultivated home 
of the Agriculturist, which it now presents. But, 
such is thc r progress of American enterprise, 
with the advantages held out by the general gov¬ 
ernment to the actual settler, in disposing of the 
public lands at the low price of one dollar and a 
quarter per acre, in the different states, those 
lands in a few years have increase from 100 to 
500 per cent, from first cost, according to their 
location. # This is what enables the American 
farmer, not only to drive all competition from 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 75 

our shores, but to compete successfully in the 
markets of Europe with our once foreign rival, 
and settles the fact beyond a doubt, that Amer¬ 
ica is destined to be the granery of the world. 

The advantages to the Miller are also very 
great. The Western States, whose luxuriant 
soil produces the finest quality of grains in the 
world, also afford ample water power for the 
manufacture of the same, which constitutes a 
mutual benefit, both to the Farmer and Miller ; 
as it makes a home market for the grain of the 
latter—and there is no branch of business which 
the farmer receives so much benefit from, as he 
does from that which always pays him the full 
equivalent, in cash, for his produce, when deliv¬ 
ered at the mill. And all improvements in the 
construction of flouring mills, tends also to the 
benefit of the producer of the soil, as it requires 
less wheat, by one bushel to the barrel of flour, 
now T than formerly, which makes a profitable 
saving to those of our farmers who have their 
grain manufactured on their own account, as 
many of our western farmers do. 

We here insert a statistical table, showing the 
amount of grain grown in the principal wheat 
growing States of the Union, for the year 1848 : 


76 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER 


TABLE OF GRAIN GROWG IN THE UNITED STATES. 


WHEAT. 

15.500,000 


INDIAN CORN. 


STATES. 

New York, _ 

Pennsylvania 

Virginia, 

Maryland, 

Ohio, 

Michigan, 

Indiana, 

Illinois, 

Wisconsin, 

Missouri, 

Iowa, 

Texas, 


15,200,000 

12,250,000 

5,150,000 

20,000,000 

10,000,000 

8,500,000 

5,400,000 

1,600,000 

2,000,000 

1,300,000 

1,100,000 

1,300,000 


17,500,000 

21,000,000 

38,000,000 

8,800,000 

70,000,000 

10 , 000,000 

45,000,000 

40,000,000 

1,500,000 

28,000,000 

3,500,000 

1,800,000 

1 , 000.000 


Oregon, 

The foregoing table is from the Report of 
the Commissioner of Patents, for the year 1848. 
In connection with this statistical table of tfie 


amount of grain grown in the states referred to, 
we have also prepared a like table showing the 
amount of capital invested in this one branch of 
business, which will serve to give the reader 
some conception of the interest the milling busi¬ 
ness creates in the following states : 


STATES. 


CAPITAL. 


STATES. 


CAPITAL. 


New York, 

Pennsylvania, 

Virginia, 

Maryland, 

Ohio, 

Michigan, 

Indiana, 


$8,000,000 

4,000,000 

3,000,000| 

1,000,000 

5,800,000 

4,060,000 

2 , 100,000 


Illinois, 

Wisconsin, 

Missouri, 

Iowa, 

Texas, 

Oregon, 


$1,800,000 

1.070,000 

1 , 000,000 

300,000 

175,000 

20,000 




THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


7? 


ON THE QUALITY OF FRENCH BURR, 

^ best adapted for Grinding Wheat and Corn. 

There is no description of stone within our 
knowledge, that affords so much variety of tex¬ 
ture, or that is as well adapted for grinding, as 
that known as the “ French Burr.” It varies, 
from the closest of quality to the openest and 
poorest of the stone species. 

We shall now, in this Chapter, give the ne¬ 
cessary directions, which, if attended to strictly, 
will always ensure the miller, who should 
always be the person to select the quality of 
millstones which will enable him to make the 
best yields, as well as a better quality of flour 
than he can otherwise do on any other descrip¬ 
tion or selection of this kind of stone. In the 
first place, I here remark that every well-in¬ 
formed practical miller, of at least ten years’ 
experience in the business, must be well versed 
in the different qualities of the French Burr, 
which, from long practice, his experience tells 
him that which is likely to do the best work, 
when set in order for grinding 5 he must be 
acquainted also with what is termed the best 
stock for making millstones, as the stone is 

imported from France in blocks of various 

7 


78 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


sizes, which blocks of stone differ as much in 
color as they do in quality. The first thing to 
be done on going to the millstone manufactory, 
is to select those sized stones you want. By 
examination you will soon be able to discover 
whether they suit these directions or not 5 if 
the stone is of a close appearance, and of a 
white color, without any yellowish spots in the 
seams, or where the blocks join each other 
closely fitted, and the said seams must be 
parallel with the diameter, as by being so 
they do not break off the edges of the seams 
by interfering with the furrows ; also do not 
forget to take a mill-pick, and go over every 
block, which you may do in a few minutes, and 
if they prove of an equal hardness, then we 
should recommend that run as being a good 
run of stones for grinding wheat expressly. If 
they should prove, after trying them in this 
manner, that some parts of the different blocks 
of which the stone is composed, are rather 
softer, and incline to be open about the eye, do 
not take them, as it will take up more time in 
dressing them, to keep them in a good face, 
than two such run as we have first described. 
The clear white, and sometimes variegated, 
stock, resembling marble, is the best description 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


79 


of French Burr for all uses, as that kind of 
stock is always free and hard, and holds an 
edge as long as any other color. For grinding 
corn expressly stone of a different color may be 
used best for this kind of grinding •, I say best, 
because it is of a keener temper, and not so 
subject to soft open places as the stone first 
described. This kind of stock is of a pale 
blueish cast, and more particularly known to 
millers for its resistance of right good steel, 
but, after being dressed, will grind more hard 
corn than any other kind of stone in use. Of 
stone of this quality we have dressed a large 
number of run for different mills, expressly for 
flouring, which, with judicious management, 
answer a very good purpose j but I do not re¬ 
commend this kind, as it requires a miller of 
good judgment to superintend in dressing them, 
for, in the first place, if they are allowed to get 
at all smooth, they are apt to heat as well as 
grind wheat oiley. In the next place, if they 
are dressed at all rough, they will make very 
specky flour and grind harsh, two evils not to 
be tolerated about a flouring mill 5 further, the 
nature of this kind of Burr is of a dead, heavy 
texture, and entirely unfit for steam-mills. Where 
the power is at all varying or unsteady, this 


80 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


kind of Burr imparts to the flour a kind of a 
greyish cast. 

There is also another description of Burr 
stock which I shall here notice, and the worst 
of all others to the miller who has been so un¬ 
fortunate as to purchase such stones with the 
least reasonable hope that he has got good 
ones. This is a Burr of a yellowish colour, 
called by some the Fox Burr, and not at all 
badly named, as it is very deceptive in its 
appearance. In dressing this kind of stone, if 
resembles a knotty nature, with a good inclina¬ 
tion to curl as you strike it with the pick. After 
you have ground with it for the space of 
twenty-four hours, take it up, and it has all the 
appearance of being varnished with the best 
copal varnish, which makes the miller sigh for 
“ the good old days of Adam and Eve,” when 
the gray Laurel Hill Rock Stone were in 
fashion, or what the Virginian miller calls 
“ Nigger Heads,” either of which is preferable 
to the last described French Burr. 

Having treated of the French Burr, we shall 
now direct our remarks to that of our American 
production, the Racoon Burr. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


81 


ON THE RACOON BURR STONE. 

This description of stone is of American 
production, and its geological nativity is con¬ 
fined to the State of Ohio, not being known 
elsewhere. Its locality is in Muskingum and 
adjoining counties, known by the name of the 
“ Flint Ridge.” This stone is a description of 
burr, and makes a very good substitute for the 
imported or French Burr. During my residence 
in the State of Ohio, I was employed by the 
Messrs. Adams, of Muskingum County, who do 
a large business in flouring, being the most ex¬ 
tensive millers in that part of the State. One 
of their mills, in which the author was employed, 
was of six run of stones, all of them of Racoon 
Burr, and, having dressed them, the only con¬ 
clusions I drew, from the work the stones made, 
was, that they required to be dressed oftener 
than the generality of the French Burr. The 
reputation of this mill then stood high in New 
York for making a good article of superfine 
flour. The difference in the price between the 
Racoon and imported being from 35 to 45 per 
cent, cheaper. They are put together in blocks 
and fitted up as the French Burr, and will 
answer a good purpose for grist mills, as for 


82 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


grinding coarse grains, such as grist grinding 
generally consists of, for the use of the farmer. 


DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING NEW STONES FOR 

GRINDING. 

While the mill is in progress of building, the 
stones may be prepared by the miller who is 
to have charge of the running of the mill when 
completed, as no other than the head miller 
should direct the operation of putting in the 
dress ; and any fault in their operation he should 
be held individually accountable for. 

It being necessary to take the stone out of 
wind before the dress is laid out, it may be 
done in the following manner : first, prepare 
yourself with a good tram staff of the following 
shape : have your staff dressed four inches wide, 
with a hole through it exactly in the centre; 
then frame two posts, two by three inches wide, 
at equal distances from your centre hole, and 
then place a cap on the posts in which your 
elevating screw is inserted for the purpose of 
allowing the staff to come in contact with the 
stone. See plate, fig. 1, also fig. 2. Fig. 2 is 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


83 


different in its construction, as I use a bar of 
flat iron of any suitable size, say half an inch 
thick by one inch wide, or one and a half inch 
wide, bend it in a circular form, and let it into 
the staff with screws ; drill a hole through the 
centre, exactly in range with the hole through 
the staff for the elevating screw. This descrip¬ 
tion of staff is easier made than the staff in 
plate, fig. 1, and much easier kept in repair. 
The spindle that the staff works on requires to 
be an inch and a half in diameter, and nine 
inches in length; one of this size will work 
without springing. In referring to the plate, 
fig. 4 represents three screws, which are in¬ 
serted into the staff, in three different sections 
of the hole which the spindle passes through. 
The object of these screws is simply to allow’ 
the staff to be trammed or centered to the face 
of the stone by altering any three of those points 
which the screws represent. By placing your 
spindle properly in the eye of the stone, the 
screws may be dispensed with, and also a great 
deal of trouble in using the screw to tram the 
staff, as every time the staff is taken oil the 
spindle, in replacing it, the points require to be 
examined and trammed over. If the spindle is 
properly placed in the eye, there is no objection 



84 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


can be found in using the staff without screws, 
as the main center for taking the wind out of 
the stone is entirely dependent on the spindle 
which the staff" is suspended on ; then the miller 
must centre his spindle from the circumference 
of the stone, instead of centreing it by the eye, 
as many do, supposing that the eye is always in 
the centre of the stone, which is not always the 
case. 

Being prepared now to use paint for the staff, 
which may be prepared by mixing 2 ozs. of 
either Spanish brown or Venetian red; the 
latter is preferable, as it shows on the stone 
better with spirits of turpentine or soft water. 
By means of the screw at the top of the spindle, 
you allow the staff to come down so as to 
slightly touch the stone, which you work off all 
the high places, until the stone is perfectly out 
of wind, and may be known to be so when it 
paints the face all over exactly alike. For new 
stone the eye blocks should be worked about a 
sixteenth below the rest of the face. The next 
part of the work being to lay out and draft a 
proper dress, may be done as follows : before 
we dismiss the subject of taking millstones out 
of wind, we will just refer to another mode, 
namely, the using of three angles laid out on 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


85 


the surface of the stone, and each angle inter¬ 
secting each other, which forms a centre by 
working the lowest angle shown on the stone 
first to a good face, and working the others 
down to it. This is a mode we cannot recom¬ 
mend, as it consumes nearly as long again to 
prepare a stone with this plan as it does with 
the tram staff, consequently is much more ex¬ 
pensive, and its principles belong to a past 
generation, but are mechanically correct, and 
answer in places where a tram staff cannot be 
got readily. 


DIRECTIONS FOR LAYING OUT THE DRESS IN 

MILLSTONES. 

The first thing we shall notice under this 
dead is the amount of draft necessary for your 
leading furrows. This must be varied accord¬ 
ing to the size and quality of your stone. Stones 
that are close require more than open ones, 
consequently the miller’s own experience must 
direct him to define the difference between close 
and open millstones, knowing that open stones 
have a greater amount of draft than close ones. 



86 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


But I have found, from my own experience, that 
there is also another essential point to be con¬ 
sidered, that is, the particular dress you use, as 
in no quality of stone, either close or open, 
should as much draft be given to a stone of any 
size where a circle dress is used, as may be 

given where the dress is straight. My rule is, 
for a straight dress, in close stone, an inch to 

the foot of the diameter, and three-quarters of 
an inch with a curve. After you have made up 
your mind on the amount of draft which you 
intend to use, set a piece of board in the eye of 
your stone, which for convenience we will call 
a draft board ; then if you wish to use 4 inches 
draft, set your dividers four inches, and after 
you have found the exact centre of your stone, 
place the point of your dividers in that centre, 
and strike a circle on the board called the draft 
circle ; this is the first preparatory step of im¬ 
portance, the next being to know what way 
your stone is to run, whether with the sun or 
contrary ; if with the sun, you turn your face 
towards it, going the contrary way round the 
stone, and by placing one end of your pattern 
to the draft circle, and the other end on the 
periphery of the stone, you obtain the desired 
draft for your leading furrows. The proper 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


87 


rule for finding the distance for each of the 
leading furrows, is to divide the number of 
quarters wanted, by the circumference, and the 
product is the distance the leading furrows are 
apart. Set your dividers according to the pro¬ 
duct, and space off your quarters before striking 
out your leading furrows, which will show at 
once whether your calculation is right or not. 
When your furrows are all made, you may then 
complete the face of your stone for grinding- 
grain, by making a perfectly true face on the 
stones before they are turned down. 

If your stones require to be driven contrary 
to the sun, you lay out the dress by going around 
the stone in the same direction with the sun ; 
this rule is very simple, and capable of saving 
many mistakes usually made by millers in care¬ 
lessly drafting the dress to run the wrong way. 


A SPECIAL TREATISE ON THE DIFFERENT 
MILLSTONE DRESSES 

Now in use , with practical remarks on their dif- 
• ferent action . 

The millstone dress is that draft given to the 
furrows for the purpose of discharging the meal 
from the stone when properly ground. 





88 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


The proper draft or dress to he used for this 
purpose, is a matter which involves a great dif¬ 
ference of opinion, both with millers and mill¬ 
wrights. Generally the former shapes his ideas 
from personal observation in the grinding of 
the millstone, and the latter from theory only, 
whereas by uniting both of these essential prin¬ 
ciples, more conclusive evidence would be ob¬ 
tained as to the proper dress or draft necessary 
for the millstone. 

The first principle’is the discharge, the next 
is the way to draft that discharge so that the 
stone when grinding shall receive its propor¬ 
tional quantity on its entire surface, from the 
eye to the skirt. The difficulty to contend with 
in this particular is the variation of circular 
motion that the grain encounters in passing 
from the. eye to the place of discharge, for in 
every superficial inch of surface from the eye to 
the periphery, the circular motion increases as 
the circumference grows larger until the meal 
is discharged from the stone. So from mv own 
personal experience I have found this the most 
difficult part of our trade to improve, from The 
fact that the proper draft of the dress in a mill¬ 
stone is of more importance to the miller than 
it is generally supposed to be, for the following 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


89 


reasons : in the first place, mills built on light 
streams suffer more for want of a perfect know¬ 
ledge of this important part of the miller’s art, 
than those situated on large streams. All kinds 
of millstone dresses that curve, require more 
power to drive them than furrows that have no 
curve ; and the more curve or circle, the greater 
amount of power you want to drive the stone. 
As millers who use circle dresses in preference 
to all others will require abundant proof on this 
subject, we hope to give it to them ; and if we 
succeed in enlightening them on the main error 
of all circular dresses, all we ask of them is to 
adopt what science and practical experience 
prove to be the better mode. 

To illustrate this subject more fully, we take 
a millstone of four and a half feet in diameter, 
with a motion of 175 to 180 revolutions per 
minute, and prepare it for flouring with a cir¬ 
cular dress, with furrows on a circle of once and 
a half the diameter of the stone. 1 pitch on this 
particular dress to illustrate my views, as eight- 
tenths of all the circular dresses I have examined 
are drafted on this curve. Suppose, then, that 
this stone has a draft at the eye of the lowest 
number of inches generally given, being three 

and a half inches at the centre, i ask, what will 

8 



90 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


the angle be that the furrows will pass each 
other from the eye to the periphery ? We 
suppose that in such a draft above described, the 
angle of the furrows crossing each other are 
equal; this should not be the case, when we 
consider that the central force increases as the 
distance from the centre increases, caused by 
the circumference of every superficial inch ol 
the stone increasing. We ask, then, how are 
you to bring the same amount of meal on this 
increasing velocity of the skirts of the stone, 
that you have at the centre, when your draft, in 
both parts of your stone, are alike demonstrated 
by purely scientific principles, being governed 
by the laws of circular motion, on the same 
principle as above described ? We affirm that 
at least one-twentieth of the pressure used on a 
stone of four and a half feet diameter, revolving 
175 revolutions per minute, grinding 15 bushels 
per hour, might be dispensed with, or avoided, 
if the draft or dress was applied in such a 
manner as to decrease as the central force in¬ 
creased, which would allow the angle of draft 
with which their furrows cross each other, in 
inverse proportion to their diameters. If the 
twentieth of the pressure need not be used, that 
is just one-twentieth of the power saved, with at 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


91 


least an equal advantage gained of five per cent, 
in the quality of the flour. As the less pressure 
used in manufacturing, the better the flour after 
■it is manufactured. This most all will admit. 

With this dress more time is consumed in 
keeping your stone in proper order than should 
be, as all experienced millers will readily admit. 
The skirts of the stone with circular dresses 
are always lower than either the breast or eye, 
and the smaller the circle used, the greater this 
difficulty will exist, it being impossible to give 
the skirt as much of the meal with this dress as 
its relative proportions require. Where a stone 
is grinding, say 15 bushels per hour of wheat, 
four and a half feet in diameter, and running 
night and day, in twenty-four hours from the 
time it was started, the heat caused by the 
great pressure used becomes intense, as it forms 
a scalding temperature which greatly affects the 
quality of the flour. To test this principle more 
fully, I have compared the degrees of the tem¬ 
perature of the meal with this dress, and what 
is called the old fashioned straight quarter, as 
the meal issued from the stone, and found the 
following result: 

The circle dress ground the warmest by ten 
to twenty degrees of Frahenheit ; both the same 


92 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


kind and sized stone grinding about the same 
quantity. On two separate examinations of the 
heat of the meal, the stone with the circle dress 
had 18 leading furrows, and the straight quarter 
16 ditto. 

Now hy this experiment alone, I do not say 
that this quarter, or straight dress, is the one I 
should recommend all millers to use. No, by 
no means ; as the disproportion in the draft of 
its short furrows condemns it also. But the 
experiment went to prove its superiority over 
the circle, which was readily discovered in the 
lively rich color of the flour, and the clean 
appearance of the offal. 

The different dresses as represented on plate 
2, are all got up from those two,—the circle 
and straight quarter dress ; and I must say that 
their inventors were actuated more hy a love 
of variety and novelty than from the dictates of 
practical experience. For that reason we shall 
not take time to notice them at further length 
than described in plate 2, fig. 3, considering it 
no advantage to the miller, although there may 
he some who will value it more than any other 
dress represented, because they have spent 
more time in getting them up, than they have 
taken to examine the error they have made by 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


93 


introducing a combination of artificial drafts 
for millstones contrary to those laws of circular 
motion and central forces which govern all 
kinds of millstone dresses of whatever kind 
used. 

We shall now present that dress for millstones 
that science and experience shows to be best 
for all sizes of stone and varieties of central 
motion occasioned by the revolutions made per 
minute of the stone. These dresses are seen in 
plate 2. Fig. 1 and 2, represent a perfectly 
straight furrow, one inch and one-eighth in 
width for a stone four and a half feet in diameter. 
The number of leading furrows should be from 
16 to 20, or 21 if the stone is more than ordi¬ 
nary close. I prefer 21 ; then divide those 
quarters equally with another furrow each, which 
will give 42 whole furrows, allowing the short 
furrows to enter the leading ones in close stone. 
This dress may be called properly, the “ New 
Quarter Dress its superiority over the old 
16 quarter dress is apparent to all when we ex¬ 
amine the drafts in plate 2, fig. 1, and 2. 

Mill rs who may think that there is too much 
face '/n the skirt, may safely increase the size 
of their furrows one-eighth of an inch on the 

skirt, and in very open stones may decrease it 

8 * 


94 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


accordingly, as well as the number of furrows. 
I have the opinion of several of the best millers 
in the United States, all agreeing on this dress 
as being the best in use. By the use of it we 
entirely dispense with that short furrow neces¬ 
sarily used in the old 16 quarter dress, by giving 
the short furrow in the new quarter dress about 
the same draft as the second furrow in the old, 
which serves to make the flour better, as less 
pressure is used with the new quarter dress than 
with the old—the short furrows in the 16 quarter 
dress, the angle at which they cross each other 
being too obtuse to admit of their cutting, as 
may be seen by the fig. 2; the angle being 84 
degrees of draft, they push the meal out, and 
cannot act otherwise. 

With the new quarter dress, as described, I 
should not recommend more draft at the eye of 
the stone than three and a half inches, where its 
motion is from 160 to 180 revolutions per 
minute, for a stone of four and a half feet in 
diameter, with the same proportion according 
to the size of the stone. Fig. 1, four and a half 
feet stone 21 quarters. Fig. 2 reprc sents a 
stone equal to four and a half feet, 16 quarters. 
Fig. 3, a stone same size, dress on the circle of 
the stone, with 40 furrows. 








millstones—quarter dress. 

































MILLSTONE-CIRCULAR DRESS. 
























THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


9^ 


DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING FURROWS ON THE 
MOST APPROVED PLAN- 

The manner in which a furrow is shaped is 
very important, as in discharging the meal, they 
will, if not properly made, make too many mid¬ 
dlings, and allow the bran to pass out thicker 
than it ought to be. 

The proper form I have found for them is a 
perfectly true taper. From the first edge, com¬ 
monly called the track edge, up to the second, 
called the feather edge, and of a depth of three- 
eighths of an inch at the back or first edge, up 
to a sixteenth part of an inch at the feather 
edge of a new stone, and not deeper than the 
depth of a good heavy crack when your stones 
are in perfect good face for flouring. 

Now, much pains in the mechanical construc¬ 
tion of them may be saved to the young miller 
by the use of a gauge and staff. To dress his 
furrows by the gauge is simply the size and 
shape of the kind of furrows you want to make 
cut on wood, which will assist you. To make 
all your furrows precisely the same depth, the 
staff is a small flat rule four or five inches long, 
by which you can apply paint to your furrows 
to work them even, by which much time is 








96 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


spared, for the paint sliows you all the high 
places, so that not one stroke of the pick need 
be lost. 

For flouring, your furrows require to be as 
smooth as the face, as rough furrows make the 
flour specky. I have heard millers object fre¬ 
quently to their bolts not being right, when the 
whole cause lay in the rough manner in which 
their stones were dressed. 


DIRECTIONS FOR STAFFING AND CRACKING THE 
FACE OF THE MILLSTONE* 

Every three years is as often as necessary to 
dress the furrows, but in a mill that does a good 
business, the face of the stone requires Crack¬ 
ing as often as every four days, the stone run¬ 
ning night and day. 

Cracking the face, as it is termed, is an arti¬ 
ficial mode of cutting the face of a millstone in 
parallel lines with the furrows, by which the 

bran is cleaned; consequently, when well 
done, a stone will grind a third faster than with¬ 
out the cracked face, and the flour is far supe¬ 
rior ; with stones cracked with about from 26 to 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


97 


30 to every superficial inch of the face, reason 
tells us that they need not be pressed so close 
together. It requires a good deal of practice 
to be perfect in this part of the miller’s art, but 
by the use of practice, we become perfect in 
this, as well as any o'ther branch of the busi¬ 
ness. 

After the stones are taken up for the purpose 
of sharpening them, the first thing the miller 
should do, is to take *a soft sand stone, which 
should be kept for the purpose, and rub the face 
of your mdlstones all over with it. The object 
of this is to scoure the face, which leaves it in 
better order to receive the work you are going 
to put into it. Sweep them off clean, and then 
apply your staff. If your stone should be high¬ 
er about the eye and breast, skin off those 
places until the staff fits tight all over the face 
of the stone, and crack the balance, then your 
stone is ready for grinding. If you should find 
your stones in good face, when you take them 
up, with the paint equally distributed all over 
the face of the stone alike, being the highest 
about the eye, then the stones are considered 
to be in good face—then Crack them all over 
nicely without breaking the face, which must 
be done with a sharp pick, then apply a little 






98 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


tallow around your spindle neck, and if the 
spindle is loose, tighten it, and tram your spin¬ 
dle ; tiien you may put your stone down, as they 
are in good order for grinding. 


ON THE BEST SIZE OF MILLSTONES FOB DIF¬ 
FERENT WATER POWERS. 

The proper size of millstones, is a subject 
of as much consideration and interest to the 
miller as any other improvement in his business; 
and the improvements which late years have 
discovered in this particular, are worthy of no¬ 
tice in this work. When we look back to the 
days of our youth, and see what other days have 
brought forth in this particular, we are aston¬ 
ished that the many simple improvements of 
the present day, were so long unknown. 

Not many years since, the size of millstones, 
as thought best by the first millwrights and mil¬ 
lers in our country, was from five to seven feet; 
and numbers of those same stone are still in use 
and not grinding as much per hour as stones of 
less than one-half their diameters in mills con¬ 
structed on the scientific principles of the age. 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


99 


Stones four and a half feet in diameter are 
large enough for any description of water pow¬ 
er, and larger than I should recommend for any 
water-power over ten feet head and fall, as four 
feet four inches is large enough to make, with¬ 
out crowding, 50 barrels of flour per run a day, 
which is a good amount of business for mills of 
four run of stone. 

The great improvement in the difference of 
the size of millstones—first, consists of redu¬ 
cing the amount of power used to drive such 
large sizes of stone, by cutting off that great 
amount of leverage we had to contend against 
in stones of from five to seven feet in diameter. 
Also, by applying the power so much nearer 
the center, by increasing the weight of the run¬ 
ning stone; by which means from twice to five 
times the amount of grain is ground with a less 
quantity of water. This improvement of in¬ 
creasing the weight of the running millstone, is 
more in accordance with true mechanical prin¬ 
ciples of science, and of more value to the mil¬ 
ler, as it saves a large amount of capital in the 
purchase of millstones and the necessary ma¬ 
chinery to put them in motion on the old plans 
of mill building. 

For a further explanation of the advantages 


100 


THE AMERICAN MILLER 


of increasing the weight of the runner, I refer 
to the communication from Clinton to the State 
of Michigan, on the subject, prepared expressly 
for this work, where there is a mill in success¬ 
ful operation ; the stones being but four and a 
half feet in diameter, and the amount which 
they grind per run being also stated. 

The article will be found by reference to the 
index. 


PRACTICAL REMARKS ON GRINDING WHEAT 

AND CORN. * 

To be a good judge of grinding wheat for 
flouring, the miller must be endowed with one 
of the five blessings or senses, which Nature 
has endowed mankind with generally, that is, 
an acute sense of feeling, for without this sense, 
the miller is destitute of a guide to grind wheat 
for merchant work, in such manner as to realize 
the greatest possible amount of flour from the 
wheat, as it does not require but an alteration 
of two degrees to make a diflerance of from 
one to three pounds of flour in the bushel; so it 
is in the different qualities of wheat which the 



the AMERICAN MILLER. 10] 

miller may have to grind, as some qualities of 

l 6at ^ S r > n d from one to five degrees closer 
than others, owing first, to the order that each 
sample may be in when ground, and secondly 
to the particular species of wheat. All those 
causes must be examined by the miller; he will 
t icn be prepared to form a correct judgement 
hoyv close the stone requires to be set on each, 
kind of wheat; as the yield required from every 
60 lbs. of good clean wheat should be such as 
to produce a barrel of superfine flour (capable 
of passing inspection laws) from every 240 lbs. 
of merchantable wheat, being 49 lbs. of super¬ 
fine flour for every 60lbs. of wheat; this is a 
closer yield than the average of the different 
qualities of wheat will yield; and to manufac¬ 
ture on this yield, the stones require to be kept 
in pci feet order, as the millstones are the entire 
key which regulates the profits of the miller, 
we think much attention cannot be expended 
more profitably than that bestowed in keeping 
tnem in proper order. 

Much as I have said on the subject of mill 
stones, I will also, before leaving the subject 
lay down a few rules for the benefit of the 
young miller, as I have once been of that class 
myself, which will ena lie him to acquire a more 




102 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


perfect knowledge of keeping the millstone in 
proper order : The worst and most easily de¬ 
tected state a millstone can be in, is when small 
round and hard pieces are discharged with parts 
of the meal, ground close enough ; this is evi¬ 
dence enough, that your stone are out of face 
and working entirely on some high places 
which prevent the stones running close enough 
together to grind the meal all alike—they should 
be instantly taken up, and by laying on the 
staff dry and moving it gently over the face, 
you will soon find those high places, which 
should be skinned off until the staff shows the 
face to be even by fitting the stone tightly all 
over its surface; which, after a good rubbing 
with the Burr block, your stone will be ready 
for grinding. 

If, on taking up the stone for examination, 
you should find no high places, but the stone 
staffing an equal face all over, then the fault 
lies in the furrows being too deep, which you 
can remedy by filling up to a proper depth with 
cement, made for that purpose; by reference 
to the index of this work, you will be informed 
how to prepare it. 

To grind Corn, you want a very heavy crack 
in the face of the millstone, which shows the 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


193 


necessity of having stone expressly made to or¬ 
der for this particular business. Also furrows 
answer better by being a little rounding and 
double the depth of the feather edge that you 
require for wheat. 


REMARKS ON INDIAN CORN AS AN ARTICLE OF 

FOREIGN CONSUMPTION. 

As Corn is now becoming an article of food 
for thousands of the poor class of people of Eu¬ 
ropean countries, taking as it does the place of 
their principal food—the potatoes—which of 
late years have suffered from decay, so much 
so as to reduce thousands of those people sub¬ 
jects to famine, disease and death, which for 
want of other food were obliged to use the dis¬ 
eased potato, until relieved somewhat from suf¬ 
fering starvation by the timely and charitable 
aid rendered by the people of the United States 
of America to suffering Ireland, in the famine 
which existed in that country, by shipping in 
our National vessels, free of charge, quantities 
of Indian corn and flour, by which the lives of 
thousands were saved from immediate death 



104 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER 


by starvation, to offer up prayers of thankful¬ 
ness and gratitude to Heaven for the prosperity 
of that nation whose philanthropy w as such as 
to allow those very ships to withdraw from the 
active service in what they w ere then engaged, 
(we being at war with Mexico,) to carry the 
means of subsistence to the starving Irish *, an 
act which of itself is enough to erect monuments 
of gratitude on the hearts of every inhabitant 
of that country, as well as upon the hearts of 
its desendants, which form such a large portion 
of our American population for the prosperity 
of those American republican institutions of 
Liberty, protected by a constitution of unequal¬ 
led structure, for the benefit of that portion of 
the human family who are the inhabitants of 
the soil it protects. 

We say. that the Corn of America will un¬ 
doubtedly take the place of the potatoes of that 
country as food for the poorer classes, it being 
according to learned judges more wholesome 
and stronger diet than potatoes ; which w r ill 
benefit the American farmer of the western 
states who raise such large quantities of corn, 
and also the American miller, as it will pay al¬ 
ways a better profit than the manufacture of 
wheat into superfine flour. The author of this 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


105 


book has recently invented a simple mode of 
drying Indian corn, so as it will keep two years 
in meal barreled. For a full description refer¬ 
ence may be had to the article under its pro¬ 
per head. 


ON THE CONSTRUCTION 

OF THE MERCHANT BOLTS FOR SUPERFINE FLOUR 

ON THE OLD PLAN. 

The arrangement that is necessary in the 
constructing of Bolts for the merchant flouring 
mill being such as the generality of millwrights 
do not investigate closely, is apparent to those 
that examine this subject. When we consider 
the fact that wheat is composed of a very thin 
skin filled with flour which if manufactured 
properly ought to produce the following quali¬ 
ties: Superfine flour—Seconds—Ship Stuff— 
and Bran—in the first place. Once is enough 
to grind the meal all must admit, but in the 
common way of arranging and constructing the 
merchant bolts, a second grinding becomes ne¬ 
cessary. Of that quality called middlings, 
which, when ground a second time, the flour is 

called fine, and is unfit for bread, as it is too 

9* 



106 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


dry to be- palatable, which, if manufactured as 
it should be, the middlings will be too poor to 
be fit for any other use than feed. We will 
now describe a full chest of merchant bolts on 
tile general arrangement or old plan. 

What is called a full chest consists of two 
superfine reels, which are both fed from the 
cooler ; then what meal is left passes into two 
other reels, immediately under, called the re¬ 
turn reels. But I will here notice that only part 
of those reels are returned back to the cooler, 
the rest of the reels being all there are to com¬ 
plete the entire separation and cleansing of the 
different qualities. The numbers of the cloth 
used in this chest are a§ follows:—The super¬ 
fine reels are about 32 inches in diameter, co¬ 
vered with No. 9 cloth ; the lower or return 
reels, the numbers vary from No. 8 (being the 
finest) down to No. 7, and sometimes less, for 
the middlings which are ground over again, 
which will come from No. 6 or 7, will be too 
rich unless they are ground and bolted over, and 
even then they will make nothing better than 
fine flour; the length of the reels is about 18 
feet, with a pitch of about a quarter of an inch 
to the foot. Such is a description of the mer¬ 
chant bolts on what is called the old plan. We 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


107 


shall now give our opinion on this mode of con¬ 
structing bolts. We must condemn the plan, 
as the middlings are too rich, and it also re¬ 
quires more wheat for a barrel of superfine flour 
than is necessary. 

In condemning this arrangement of the mer¬ 
chant bolts, we have constructed a chest with 
the addition of but one reel more, which cleans 
the offal much better than the chest above de¬ 
scribed and saves a second grinding. 


A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW ARRANGEMENT OF 
THE MERCHANT BOLTS 
ON THE MOST APPROVED PLAN. 

/Fhe principal improvement of this arrange¬ 
ment of the merchant bolts to the miller is its 
doing away with the necessity of grinding over 
a second time. 

Our chest consists of four reels, with a sepa¬ 
rate duster for the offals. The mechanical 
proportions of it are as follows : Length of reels, 
20 feet; diameter of four reels, 3 feet each; 
diameter of duster, 40 inches. 

The No. of the cloth to be used as follows : 
On the first two superfine reels, Nos. 8 and 9, 



108 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


the 9 being on the head, one-half of each on the 
next two being the return reels, Nos. 7 and 8, 
No. 7 being on the head ; on duster first six 
feet, No. 7 ; on next, 12 feet, No. 5 ; next two- 
feet wire of 12 or 16 meshes to the inch. The 
length of the duster being 20 feet on the inside, 
each reel must have a conveyer, with the flights 
all drafted for the same way. The two return 
reels should return the whole length with a 
slide left in the bottom of the superfine con¬ 
veyer to draw as far as five feet, for the purpose 
of returning, according as circumstances may 
require. There should be a spout at every six 
feet of the duster to receive each quality sepa¬ 
rated by this arrangement. The fine cloth on 
the return reels will dust the middlings of the 
other bolt perfectly clean, which will make 
them too poor for any other use than good feed. 
By the time they arrive in the duster, their 
name is changed from that of middlings to 
seconds. Merchant bolts of this description 
are capable of dressing from 150 to 200 barrels 
of flour per day with the greatest ease, which 
will be large enough for mills of four run of 
stones. The pitch given to the reels should be 
but one-eighth of an inch to the foot. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


109 


DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING CLOTHS FOR BOLTS 
OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS. 

Bolting cloths should not be cut in making, 
as they last much longer when economy is 
used in this particular. The wide German old 
anchor brand is the best for millers’ use, and is 
always known by the deep yellow tinge and 
square mark, which the French or American 
manufacture does not show. The width of the 
ribs which the cloth rests on, should be lined 
with coarse heavy cotton cloth, and also sewed 
nicely on to the bolting cloth; also the head 
and tail end should have a piece of the same 
kind of cloth as above for nailing them fast. 
The best white sewing silk should be used 
instead of thread. In making they ought not to 
be made to fit the reel too tight, as a tight cloth 
is apt to suck the flour. 


ON THE PROPER SIZE OF MILL-PICKS FOR 

DRESSING STONE. 

Much has been attempted within ‘the last fqw 
years to improve this important tool lor the 



110 THE AMERICAN MILLER. 

convenience of the miller, but all attempts that 
I have seen, I have pronounced as worthless in 
comparison with a pick made from the cast steel 
bar as generally used. The size of the steel 
bar ought to be one and one-eighth of an inch 
square; cut your bar six inches long, and draw 
it with a true taper from the centre each way. 
The best cast steel should be used for mill- 
picks, and when your picks are done they should 
be an inch an a quarter to three-eighths wide. 
At each end the steel should be hardened hard 
enough till they show a straw colour for two 
inches at each end. The blacksmith who 
sharpens them requires to pay a good deal of 
attention to prevent the steel from getting too 
hot, as it is easy detected when done, and also 
to hammer them on an anvil that is smooth to 
prevent the edges from cracking. I have taken 
a good deal of pains to get a receipt for making 
a composition for tempering cast steel, which 
may be found useful. 

— 

COMPOSITION FOR TEMPERING CAST STEEL 

MILL-PICKS. 

It is generally very difficult for the miller to 
get the blacksmith to give the steel its proper 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


Ill 


temper, from a want of a sufficient knowledge 
on the part of blacksmiths generally what that 
temper should be. We here insert a composi¬ 
tion for the purpose, which assists the process 
of tempering cast steel by assisting the steel to 
retain its natural qualities and fineness of tem¬ 
per, in opposition to the great degree of heat 
used for drawing and tempering ; as the oftener 
steel is heated, the more brittle become its 
fibres, which render it worthless to the mechanic, 
and more particularly to the miller. 

To 3 gallons of water, add, 3 oz. spirits of 
nitre, 3 oz. of spirits of heartshorn, 3 oz. of white 
vitriol, 3 oz. of salmoniac, 3 oz. alum, 6 oz. 
salt, with a double handfull of hoof-parings. The 
steel to be heated a dark cherry red. Every 
miller should keep a large jug of this prepara¬ 
tion in the mill for tempering his picks in ; also 
it must be kept corked tight to prevent evapor¬ 
ation. 


ON THE USE OF THE PROOF STAFF. 

The proof staff is made of cast iron, with a 
perfectly true face and set in a case with a 
cover to it. It is for the purpose of keeping 





112 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


the wood staff that is used to work the stone 
by in order, as by applying one on the other 
you will soon detect any error in your stone 
staff. A little sweet oil should be applied on 
the proof when about to try the order which 
your stone staff is in. Rub the face of the 
iron staff gently with a woollen cloth with a 
small quantity of oil, then apply the wooden 
one ; the oil of the iron staff will adhere to the 
w^ood, so as to guide to the highest spots. You 
can face your staff much better with this instru¬ 
ment, than it is possible for-a plane to do it, 
as in finishing you use a scraper of steel or 
glass. A proof staff is an article that should 
lie in every flouring mill; it is as necessary as 
a half-bushel measure or toll dish. In my ex¬ 
aminations of some of our best flouring mills, I 
have found this instrument wanting, and was 
much surprised when many good practical mil¬ 
lers have told me they never used one. The 
proof staff requires but to be seen and used 
once to be the millers’ favorite. They are made 
all sizes to suit all description of millstone, the 
general price being $25. 

Those mills that have the proof staff 1 in use, 
the offals are from two pounds to five pounds 
lighter per bushel than mills that have not. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


113 


. 

| ' 

ON TI1E AMOUNT OF HELP NECESSARY TO BE 
EMPLOYED IN A MILL OF FOUR RUN OF STONES, 
WITH THE DUTY OF EACH RESPECTIVELY. 

It requiring mechanical skill and art to con¬ 
duct a flouring mill as it should be, we here 
give the proper management for conducting the 
* uc ie with propriety. It should have a head 
roller, who should act as superintendent of the 
establishment, and all pertaining thereto; also 
a second and third miller, whose duty it is to 
perform all the duties assigned them by the 
head miller or superintendent. The second 
miller should be capable of taking charge of the 
affairs of the mill in the absence of the head 
miller. When the mill runs steady, a run of 
stone should be dressed every day. The second 
miller, and third, if capable, should perform 
that duty, which should be done by three or four 
o’clock each day. In the morning, as soon as the 
head miller returns to the mill, which should be 
after breakfast, he should first examine how 
each stone is grinding, and then the offal, by 
which means he is able to ascertain how the 
grinding was performed since he left the mill in 
the evening when his watch was off at eleven 
o’clock. If he detects any alteration, he should 







114 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


inquire into its cause and give the necessary 
instruction how it might have been avoided. By 
so doing he performs his duty as an instructor, 
and saves any further occasion for neglect; or, 
otherwise, then he should continue in charge of 
the grinding and other business, such as may 
come to his knowledge during the day, allowing 
the other miller to perform the stone dresi en g, 
sweeping, &c. When the stones are dressed 
and put down, one of the hands there employed 
should take the oil-can and supply every journal 
in the mill with a fresh supply, which will last 
all night; then early in the morning it should 
be renewed before taking up the stone, which 
will last all day. Under management of this 
description all things will move with a degree 
of order so necessary to the conducting of the 
business as it should be. Mills that do a large 
retail business should have a person for that 
purpose who is also competent to take in wheat. 
The flour should be packed by a careful person, 
expressly for that employment alone. The 
night should be divided into three equal parts, of 
four hours each—the head miller’s watch first, 
&c. 





THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


115 


HYDRAULICS AS PERTAINING TO THE 
PRACTICAL MILLWRIGHT. 

A knowledge of the natural laws which oper¬ 
ate on fluids, particularly water, is a matter of 
importance to the millwright which he should 
be well versed in. Learned theories is not of 
much use in this particular, as observation and 
practical experience go further to the attain¬ 
ment of making the practical millwright more 
perfect than years of learned superficial theo¬ 
ries can or do ever effect. For the truth of 
this assertion let us examine some of the im¬ 
provements made in the application of water 
for driving mills within the last thirty years. 
Thirty years ago the undershot wheel was the 
principal wheels used for low heads, by which 
only, according to learned authors, one-half of 
the effective power was attained, it being by 
impulse or percussion. This we will admit; 
but where the undershot wheel was used for 
driving mills-tones, in the days of such wheels, 
we will not admit that even one half of the 
effective power of the water was obtained, as 
demonstrated by recent improvements. We 
are told also, that the specific gravity of water 
as applied to the overshot wheel for driving 








THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


116 

s 

mill-stones, is the best possible mode of appli¬ 
cation, as double the power or effect is obtained 
on the overshot by specific gravity, that is 
attainable by the application on the undershot 
by impulse or percussion only. This we shall 
admit, as our own experience, as well as that 
of others better versed in science and practice, 
have fully demonstrated. 

But the inventions and improvements of the 
last few years have brought new light in the 
application of water- for driving mills, which 
was not known or thought of thirty years ago. 
And may I ask to whom are we indebted for this 
valuable light ? To the man of scientific knowl¬ 
edge, or the practical mechanic ? We say to 
the latter, as those names enrolled on the list 
of inventions in the United States Patent Office 
will attest. Learned theoretical investigations 
have never accomplished much for our ad¬ 
vantage in the improvements of the mechanic 
arts of our country; for practical science is 
that science which is based on truth only for 
light alone. We have been taught that in uni¬ 
ting what has been applied as separate powers 
in years gone by, specific gravity, percussion 
by impulse, and reaction, which is nearly equal 
with either of the other powers, as to affect it, 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


117 


being .the after effect of all the others, that 
water, as a fluid, can create, and so beautifully 
demonstrated for the purpose of propelling mills 
by the inventors whose names are attached to 
the list of those who have accomplished great 
benefits to all those who are daily using their 
inventions, by propelling their mills in various 
parts of our extensive country. We shall here 
notice the names of the two inventions in 
water wheels which may be considered as first 
class wheels: 

First is the Lansing Spiral Percussion and 
Central Discharge Wheel, constructed with 
two setts of buckets, and called in this work 
the Combination Wheel. 

Second, is S. B. Howd’s Direct Action. This 
wheel operates well on low heads, and in that 
situation is a first class wheel. 

Now, as regards the subject of the combina¬ 
tion of gravity, percussion, and reaction, ap¬ 
plied as they are to form one great power by 
having a water wheel properly constructed to 
receive this combination and in applying it to 
the propelling of mills, I do aver it to be as 
powerful as the overshot in the most advanta¬ 
geous position for business, and more so in a 
great many locations where flouring mills are 







118 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


the purpose used for. This opinion may appear 
paradoxical to the mere theorist—those only 
theoretically acquainted with the power or ac¬ 
tion of water as a fluid; but to the millwright, 
whose experience leads him to look and exam¬ 
ine into that way of application which produces 
the best results, he will find that our calcula¬ 
tions are right when we assert that the combina¬ 
tions of power obtained by water being ap¬ 
plied on the principle of uniting those essen¬ 
tials which form this combination of gravity, 
percussion or impulse with the powerful auxil¬ 
iary of reaction which could not be attached to 
either the overshot or undershot wheels, the 
auxiliary power of the reaction of water is as¬ 
serted by Oliver Evans to be equal to the Ac¬ 
tion.—(Millwrights Guide, Art. 45, Law 11.)— 
This we believe to be true. 

That action and re-action are to different 
qualities of power in the application of water 
ail must admit, for the active verb which expres¬ 
ses action is only applied to that mode of ac¬ 
tion known to the operator as specific gravity, 
and action by impulse or percussion, which 
was the only powers applied to driving mills by 
Oliver Evans and Elicott, practical millwrights, 
and authors of a good practical work for the 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


119 










age in which it was written, it being some forty 
years or more ago since the first edition made 
its appearance for instructing those of our trade, 
as many of us should be grateful for the benefits 
received by the compiling of the only work we 
have had as a miller and a millwright’s guide, 
and we fully concur in the remarks of Thomas 
P. Jones, editor of the last edition of the Mill¬ 
wright’s Guide, in hoping that in the history of 
American inventors, posterity may accord him 
that place which lie justly merited. Cut the 
change which time has effected in the improve¬ 
ment of mills and all other machinery, renders 
Mr. Evans’s work comparatively useless as far 
as the mechanical construction of the present 
age as relates to mill building. Cut we will 
propose to illustrate our remarks on the appli¬ 
cation of water when used by those combined 
powers. 


POWERS OF GRAVITY, PERCUSSION OR IMPULSE, 

WITH THE RE-ACTION ATTACHMENT. 

That a waterwheel made and constructed to 
receive the water with this combination for 
driving millstones or saw mills, is more effec- 





120 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


tive than the overshot, we shall here show to 
the satisfaction of the most fastidious or skep¬ 
tical theorist, according to Oliver Evans theory. 
He asserts, Art. 42, Young .Millwright and Mil¬ 
lers G uide: 

That one-third of the power of water, ac¬ 
ting on a wheel cither under or overshot, is, he 

o 

says, necessarily lost to obtain a velocity or 
overcome the inertia of matter, and that this 
will hold true with all machinery that requires 
velocity as well as power. Every millwright’s 
own experience ought to teach him, that if it 
was possible to gear the overshot water-wheel 
into the stone pinion, then this one-third of lost 
power, that Oliver Evans speaks of, would be 
advantageously saved. This could not be done, 
for without double gearing the necessary mo¬ 
tion could not be obtained on the mill-stone.— 
Then let me ask, how is it with our combina¬ 
tion wheels ? Reason and practical experience 
show r s us quite the reverse, for to drive a run of 
stones of 4 1-2 feet diameter, our Avater wheel 
does not require to be over four feet in diame¬ 
ter under a head of water of 12 feet head and 
fall, giving the stone a motion of 168 revolutions 
per minute, or as many more as is required by 
altering the size of the wheel. This I call 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


121 


working on the right end of the lever, where 
the stone pinion is a few cogs larger than the 
spur wheel. Oliver Evans’s Young Millwright, 
and Miller’s Guide, page Hi, second note on 
the page, gives more evidence on this particu¬ 
lar. He says, a fluid reacts back against the 
penstock with the same force that it issues 
against the obstacle it strikes, founded on the 
laws of striking fluids. This fully corrobor¬ 
ates our previous statement, when we said the 
effective power of water by reaction was equal 
to its effective power by gravity, and percussion. 
This very day that I am writing this article, my 
own experience fully convinced me of this fact. 
I went to my usual avocation in attending the 
business of my mill. I have one of Howd’s 
Patent Direct Action water wheels *, my head 
and fall is usually about five feet. This day, 
being November 26, 1848, I had high water 
setting back on my wheel 3f> inches, (3 feet). 
I drew what we millers call a full gate, without 
any perceptible motion of the mill. The 
thought struck me, that by taking hold of the 
spur wheel I could assist the wheel to start, as 
the impulse from the head was not sufficient to 
create the slightest motion, the buckets of the 
wheel being immersed in back water. I sue- 


122 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


ceeded in turning the wheel a few feet, which 
by so doing allowed the wheel to clear itself 
sufficiently, and from the combination of per¬ 
cussion or impulse from the head and reaction 
from the bottom, which was instantaneous from 
the time the wheel first moved. I ground as 
much with but 3 feet of water from the surface 
of the back water, this day, as I have general¬ 
ly done without any back water or any per¬ 
ceivable inconvenience from it. the only differ¬ 
ence bein^ the use of more w ater to do the 
same amount of work. The advantages of 
these combination wheels to the miller, as re- 
gards the durability and large amount of capi¬ 
tal saved by the difference in the cost of buil¬ 
ding mills where they are used, and building 
with overshot w heels, is very great. We here 
give some idea of the difference, as follows : 
For a mill of four run of stones, requiring five 
combination wheels, one for each run of stones, 
and one machinery in operation. The five, 
$800 it would require to overshot wheels at 
the lowest estimate of the naked wheels, 
$800 each, with 2 large cones, 2 pits, 2 crowns, 
4 pinions, at $800, not including millwright’s 
wages for puting the same in operation, which, 
supposing the difference to be about one-half, 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


123 


as we allow eight hundred dollars to furnish 
the wheels and materials for starting, to the 
stone, with the combination wheels. Eight hun¬ 
dred dollars each for the construction of the 
overshot is low. I have myself been engaged 
in the construction of mills, where the water¬ 
wheels, 2 in number, overshot, averaged one 
thousand dollars each. Now to construct the 
mills as far as the stones—I speak only of the 
machinery this far—supposing a saving of one- 
half to the stop of the husk. The next point 
of interest, we consider, is the difference in 
durability. The combination wheels being made 
of iron will last as long as any other part of the 
mill; the overshot wheels, with a great deal of 
care, may last from nine to twelve years with¬ 
out renewing, and in the cold climates, such as 
New York and the Canadas, they require a 
great deal of protection from the frost, which 
if allowed to collect in ice, soon weakens the 
joints of the wheels, and renders it useless.— 
The manner in which the combination wheel is 
placed protects it in any climate from frost. 
Then for convenience it is preferable, as when 
the miller wants to take up his stone, all he has 
to do is to shut the gate and take up the stone 
without the burthensome task of raising and 


124 THE AMERICAN MILLER. 

shifting pinions, as is the case in breast under¬ 
shot or overshot wheels. The term combina¬ 
tion in this article, is our own language, and 
we apply it to water acting in the following 
manner: By percussion or impulse, united 
with reaction power, and Lansing’s invention. 


REMARKS TO THE MILLWRIGHT ON THE NE¬ 
CESSITY OF ECONOMY IN THE PLANNING AND 
ARRANGING THE MACHINERY OF FLOURING 
AND GRIST MILLS. 

I hope millwrights who may chance to look 
over the pages of this work, will fully appre¬ 
ciate our remarks on this subject, sufficiently, 
at least, to justify us in saying that we have 
had experience enough to nil a volume alone on 
this subject, having devoted the best part of our 
life time to the milling and millwright business, 
and that in mills constructed by different ma- 
chinics where we have had the opportunity to 
contrast the amount of genius and skill dis¬ 
played by each, and also the objectional blun¬ 
ders that have been committed by millwrights 

claiming a name for close workmanship and 
acute mechanical skill as draftmen. The first 



THE AMERICAN MILLER 125 

essential we shall notice, as requisite to a good 
mill of any kind, is power, the next is propor¬ 
tional strength in all its parts* the next being 
an economical arrangement of all its parts.— 
This is the entire of what constitutes the name 
of a good millwright. We shall now point out 
what we call the objectional blunders of some 
of our trade. The first we shall notice is an 
inordinate love for display in erecting buildings, 
of two costly a finish as expensive and showy 
Cornishes, a large amount of the inside work, 
cabinet and pannel, made such as the useless 
pannel work exhibited in some of our mills on 
the custom and flouring bolting chests, doors, 
&c. dec. Again the shafts turned and polished, 
and the worst of all a display of complicated 
machinery, where about one wheel would an¬ 
swer where three arc used. This is wrong, 
and should not be the case, as you are foolishly 
wasting a large amount of capital that might 
be much better invested in the purchase of 
wheat. 

And not the least of importance we shall now 
call your attention more particularly to, is the 
husk. 

A great many millwrights connect the husk. 

with the main building. This is wrong. The 

11 


126 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


husk should be a separate frame, for two con¬ 
siderations, namely: First, it is the main sup- ! 
port of most all the machinery ; second, when 
separate the stones work better, as they are not 
so likely to get out of level as where the husk 
is connected with the main building. Too ma¬ 
ny millwrights run into this error by framing the 
husk and building together, and the consequence 
is, when the mill is loaded with grain the build¬ 
ing settles, as right over the husk the most 
weight is generally placed, and the stone keeps 
getting out of place daily, as well as all the 
other machinery attached thereto, which soon 
decreases the power of the mill and gives the 
millwright who constructed the mill a name of 
sleighting his work, when the whole cause origi¬ 
nated in this one particular, of framing the husk 
to the main building. 

Another objection, which is quite discernible 
in too many good merchant mills of our ac¬ 
quaintance, is an unnecessary tremor, which 
gives the machinery a vibrating motion. This 
is easily discerned by the practical machinist 
as soon as his ear comes in contact with that 
ringing sound which all machinery has that is 
working irregular, as some of the wheels work 
deeper than their relative pitch circles, and oth * 





THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


127 . 


ers not deep enough for the pitch circle. This 
may all be avoided by not making your husk too 
long posted. As a general thing, where your 
husk posts are over 12 feet in length, there is 
a tremor, which has a tendency to keep the ma¬ 
chinery continually working out of its centre. 


ON BEEDINCr THE STONE. 

Another difficulty exists with many mill¬ 
wrights in regard to heeding the stones, and 
that is in laying them down in what I call a tem¬ 
porary manner, by laying boards or pieces un¬ 
der them, which keeps shrinking and swelling, 
and making it difficult to keep the bed stones 
level; with an attendant evil to the hush, as it al¬ 
so gets out of place by the same fault. The pro¬ 
per mode of heeding the stone, is to joint their 
heeds in the husk timbers to a perfect level, then 
guage the back of your stone to a size, and joint 
the same to a true face, having it a little hollow 
next the eye, and when placed will be perfectly 
level; then case around with two inch plank, 
and there will be no trouble in your mill with 
the stones getting out of level, and the bush 



128 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


will not be half the trouble as in the old way of 
beeding stones. A proper attention to our ob¬ 
servations in remedying the evils first pointed 
out, in arranging the machinery of mills to the 
best possible advantage, is what makes a good 
practical millwright; and, also, it is the sum 
total of the trade. Good calculation and close 
work is as necessary to the millwright as the 
use of the tools which he daily uses. lie must 
not think, in drafting mills, how much machinery 
he can place in the building, which only adds 
more capital that might be better engaged, as 
we have previously shown, but how little ma¬ 
chinery it will possibly take to complete the 
mill in a skilful manner, should be the main ob¬ 
ject in view. And when we think of the many 
mills which have been built in various States of 
this Union, without any regard to those princi¬ 
ples, as just laid down, where thousands of 
dollars have been lavished by head millwrights, 
to the injury of their employers, we think our¬ 
selves fully justified in extending this caution to 
those of out trade who may need it. 

We have attached a number of jobs of 
different sized mills to this work for the use of 
those millwrights who, in the language of friend 
Fowler, has got constructiveness sufficiently 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 129 

/ . 

large, but whose organ of order, is below medi¬ 
ocrity, whereby he may be able to obtain all 
the necessary information from our collection 
of jobs, which have been drafted especially for 
this work by the author, and millwrights of more 
acknowledged ability, to suit all locations for 
steam and water mills, whose head and fall is 
from 3 to 30 feet, with a full calculation of the 
amount of water necessary to drive from one 
to ten run of stones, on different heads, as shown 
in our jobs. All our plans for conducting mills 
of all descriptions are drafted with due regard 
for that phrenological organ called order, in 
the arrangement of the machinery on the most 
approved modern style of mill building, both 
flouring, grist and saw mills. We have also 
annexed a catalogue of the different patterns of 
machinery, from some of the best founderies in 
the United States, as to perfect proportions in 
the different sizes and assortments of castings, 
both for quality and price, not to be undersold 
by any other establishment in the Union. It 
is for the benefit of the millwright, as it serves 
as a guide to direct him in all his plans, as the 
patterns are all numbered in different sizes, and 
will serve the purpose of aiding the millwright 

in selecting the different articles of machinery 

ll* 




130 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


suitable for the different kinds of mills, and in 
proportioning his own work accordingly. 


TO FIND THE NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS OF 
THE WATER WHEEL PER MINUTE. 

We annex a table of rules for finding the re¬ 
volutions of any sized water wheel, which the 
millwright will find oftentimes useful in his prac¬ 
tice, namely : 

First, find the circumference of the wheel by 
multiplying the diameter by 22 and divide by 7, 
and the quotient is the correct answer. 


TO FIND THE VELOCITY OF THE STONE 
PER MINUTE. 

To find the velocity or number of revolutions 
of a 4 1-2 foot stone per minute, multiply the 
diameter in inches, which is 54, by 22, and di¬ 
vide by 7, which gives a fraction less than 170in. 
the circumference. As the lowest calculation 




THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


131 


we give stones now, being 2063 feet, or 24,756 
inches, the skirt moves per minute, which would 
give the stone 146 revolutions per minute.— 
This motion is much too slow for this size 
stone; we only insert it for the use of those 
who like slow motion for stones. 


A RULE TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF ALL 
PITCH CIRCLES. 

The proper method is to multiply the number 
of cogs in the wheel by the pitch, as 

24 cogs and 2 inches pitch, 
2 pitch 


gives 

multiplied by 


48 which is the circumfrence, 
7 and divided by 22, 


thus 22) 336 (15. ^ diameter in inches 

22 


116 

110 


6 

To reduce to feet divide by 12 ) 15. 

1. 3 .4 which 

gives one foot, three inches and a quarter. 








132 


THE AMERICAN MILI.ER. 


TO FIND HOW MANY REVOLUTIONS THE STONE 

MAKES FOR ONE OF THE WATER WHEELS. 

Divide 146 revolutions of the stone by the 
number of revolutions of the water wheel, and 
the quotient is the answer. 


ON MACHINERY. 

A correct knowledge of those fundamental 
principles of the power and use of machinery 
should be the chief study of both the miller and 
millwright, but more particularly the latter. The 
millwright’s trade is difierent now to what it 
w r as thirty years ago. Then the millwright had 
all his ow n gearing to make, and could not be 
expected to build so complete and well ar¬ 
ranged mills as he can now r , where he has every 
thing furnished in the shape of machinery from 
the large machinery establishments with which 
our country abounds. All of the best descrip¬ 
tion fitted and finished in a superior style of 
mechanical contrivance, from the water wheel 
to the smallest wheel in use about the mill, from 
which the millwright may select the requisite 
geering to suit any water power capable of pro- 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


133 


pelling mills of any description. For full par¬ 
ticulars look at the index of this work, for mill 
geering and catalogues of the different pat¬ 
terns of machinery furnished. 


A RULE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE CONVEYOR. 

The conveyor is that useful piece of machi¬ 
nery which forms an artificial screw for con¬ 
veying either wheat, flour, or any other stuff, 

_ i 

from one part of the mill to any desired part. 
It is simple in its construction, the shaft being 
from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. For a shaft of 
4 inches diameter, the flights should be about 
11-2 inches wide, with 2 inches in length for 
the blade, and a stem of one inch to fill a hole 
in the shaft from 7-8th of an inch to 1 inch in 
diameter. This size answers for flour and meal 
best, it requiring a more substantial one for the 
moving of grain. To a shaft of six inches di¬ 
ameter the flight should be 2 inches wide on the 
blade. To lay out the shaft to receive them, 
dress it 8 square, put in the journals and band 
them substantially, then lay out with the square 
for your flights in the following manner:— 



134 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


Scribe for the first one on the end of the shaft, 
then measure with your dividers 1 -4th of an 
inch from your first, and scribe your line on the 
next square of the shaft, which continue to do 
till you get to the other end, then go back and 
begin with the first point of your first flight to 
the first point of the scribe you made, for the 
second flight is called the pitch line, to set the 
flights at the proper angle, 


ON TIIE CONSTRUCTION OF MILL DAMS. 

Mill dams are generally a source of great 
expense in keeping them in repair when con¬ 
structed out of poor materials. There are as 
many opinions on the proper way to build them 
as there are mill dams in use. Some prefer 
stone, some clay and others brush, logs and 
every conceivable material of such nature.— 
But in building mill dams, the first thing to be 
looked at is the location where the dam is to 
set, of what kind of a foundation it is to set on, 
whether a soft bottom or hard, in other words 
clay or stone foundation by nature. If stone 
the expense is not half as great as clay or other 
soil. 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


135 


But in the Western States, stone are not 
sufficiently plenty to construct dams of, so that 
on foundations of soft bottoms the expense is 
greater to build dams than many wish to go to. 

In the first place a good foundation is neces-, 
sary to protect the dam from breaks, accidents 
by the burrowing of musk rats, which occasions 
the destruction of so many mill dams. 

As to the description of dams which wo 
should recommend where stone are not‘handy, 
would be a frame dam, they being more per¬ 
manent and capable of resisting the attacks of 
mhsk rats and high water. We shall here give 
a plan for building such a dam as we should 
recommend for all mill sites of soft founda¬ 
tions. 'Fhe bottom where you are going to 
erect, the dam should be levelled quite level, 
then mud sills should bo sunk level with the 
surface, cross wavs of the stream abount 10 or 
12 feet apart and of a width of 35 or 40 feet from 
bank to bank. The two outside sills should be 
piled with 2 inch plank drove down to a 
depth of 4 or 5 feet, with the joints as close as 
possible, and they would be the better of being 
lined with some light stuff 3-1 of an inch thick. 
Posts of 12 inches square should be framed 
into the first row of outside sills on both sides 







136 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


all the way across the dam, from bank to bank, 
and a distance of six feet apart. I hey should 
each be locked with traces extending two-thirds 
of the length of the posts at where they should 
be joined together with a lock instead of a mor¬ 
tice and tennon, with an iron bolt of an inch in 
diameter, going through both and fastened 
with a nut. I prefer a lock joint to mortice and 
tennon for the following reason: The tennon 
soon becomes rotten, and the brace becomes 
useless in a few years. This brace should be 
set at an angle of about 55 or 60 degrees, with 
the other end morticed into a sill with a two 
inch mortice, being covered with the dirt will 
not decay, as the air is excluded The braces 
require to be about 8 by 6 inches and 15 feet 
long. The posts should be capped from one to 
the other, plate fashion ; then the posts should 
receive lining of 2 inch plank on the inside 
next the dirt of both sides, pinned fast to the 
posts. 

If the stream afford a great deal of water, I 
should recommend the dam to be built in two 
sections, as above described, which should be 
divided by a waste way for the surplus water, 
which should be located in the centre of the dam 


THE AMERICAN MILLER 


137 


and of about sixty feet wide. For its construc¬ 
tion I should recommend the depth to be from 
the bottom of the dam in^the following manner: 
Let each section of the dam form a hutment 
next the waste way, by placing sills four feet 
apart the length of the waste way ; in each of 
these sills posts should be framed, with a brace 
tor the sides. These rows of posts standing 
right across the dam will form two sectional 
hutments of the dam, and the middle one may 
be constructed by being braced length-wise of 
the stream Avith short braces to avoid being in 
the way of driftwood passing down stream, it 
being necessary for string pieces for a bridge. 
Then those .sills should be covered with an 
apron of two inch plank, jointed perfectly 
straight, extending at least 40 feet below the 
dam, to carry off the water at such a distance 
to prevent an undermining of the dam, by ha¬ 
ving the foundation washed away, which the 
water will certainly do if allowed to fall on the 
soil too near the dam. The planks which are 
used for the purpose of lining the posts which 
form the butments of each section of the dam 
and the ends of the waste way, should be jointed, 
tongued and grooved, to prevent the slightest 
leakage. 


12 


138 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


Every thing of importance being completed, 
the dirt should be filled in with teams, as the 
more it is tramped the better. Clay or coarse 
gravel is the best soil to use. Proper sized 
gates may be put in on the upper side of the 
waste way, about 3 or 4 feet wide, to a 'level 
with low water mark, not to be raised only in 
times of very high water, as the proper height 
of the mill-pond should be regulated by boards 
placed over the gates for the desired head, as 
the water should be allowed to pass at all times 
freefy over them. 

This is the description of a frame dam which 
the author built. It gives the greatest satisfac¬ 
tion, it being proof against the attacks of musk 
rats which prove such an annoyance to the 
miller. Located in a country where those ani¬ 
mals abound in great numbers, my dam has been 
built about seven years, and has not given way 
once in the time. 





THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


139 


ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SMUT MACHINES 

IN USE, 

WITH RULES FOR MAKING THE SAME. 

The smut machine is used for separating 
smut and all other impurities from the wheat, 
and is a necessary machine for all mills making 
go^od flour. But the kind of smut machine 
which should be used for that purpose, is diffi¬ 
cult to find among the hosts of recent inventions, 
as every late invention seems to be got up more 
with the view of a shaving machine than for 
the purpose of separating smut from wheat, for 
which they are disposed to the miller. 

The most of those inventions that I have 
seen in use, are constructed of cast iron, which 
soon wear smooth, and are then rendered use¬ 
less, for the want of a sufficiently rough surface 
to scrape off the smut from the grain. 

Another great difficulty exists with those 
kind of smut machines. They all require too 
great a velocity, which produces more friction 
than there ought to be produced, where there 
is so much light combustible material, as chaff, 
&c, eight hundred revolutions per minute, be¬ 
ing the motion they require. 

I have constructed a smut machine which is 
very simple, and safe from fire occasioned by 




140 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


friction, as the motion does not require over 
500 revolutions per minute for the smallest size, 
and 400 for the largest size. It is nothing more 
than an improvement on the old cone machine, 
the only difference being, that in my machine 
the cylinder differs by its being made so as to 
produce a strong current of air, which acts on 
the wheat as it passes through the machine, 
and forces it through the concave, which is 
made of Russian sheet iron, perforated with an 
oblong punch. We here give the dimensions of 
a machine that will clean about 30 or 40 bushels 
per hour : 

The bottom should be 30 inches in diameter, 
and the top 18 inches in diameter, and 36 inches 
deep, which gives the proper sized concave.— 
The cylinder should be constructed on an iron 
shaft, which should be turned at both ends, one 
end to a proper point, which should be pointed 
with a good cast-steel point, fitted to run per¬ 
pendicular. The shaft should be 2 inches square. 
The cylinder should be solid, in the following 
proportions : The bottom 20 inches in diame¬ 
ter, and the top 12 inches; then fit on 16 bee- 
ters, or wings, made out of heavy band iron, 
wide enough to fill up the remainder of the 
concave, giving each wing about one-half inch 


THE AMERICAN MILLER* 


141 


from the concave, which would leave each wing 
4 3-4 inches at the bottom and 2 3-4 inches at 
the top. In putting on the wings, one edge 
should be turned so as to form a right angle with 
the wings, and about an inch wide, with holes 
sufficient to screw them on to the cylinder with 
the flanges screwed on the opposite w T ay from 
which the cylinder runs. The band pully should 
be on the top of the machine. When the ma¬ 
chine is ready to set up, it should be bolted 
down on a square frame, made to receive it, two 
feet from the floor, and this frame should be 
enclosed with No. 12 wire, so as to allow the 
air to the machine. I prefer having the top 
and bottom segments made of cast iron instead 
of w r ood, with 3 sockets cast iron, in each half 
of the top and bottom segments. The sockets 
should be about 2 inches square to receive the 
ribs that form the concave that the sheet iron 
is screwed to, which w^ould be six in number. 
Cast iron will last much longer than wood, and 
is made in one-half the time. After the paterns 
are made for the castings, the cost of one of 
these smut machines is not over fifty dollars, 
and can be made by any millwright. They are 
used in some of the best merchant flouring 

mills in the States of New York and Ohio, 

12 * 





142 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


The wheat ought to pass through a blower be¬ 
fore it arrives in the garner over the stone. If 
the wheat passes from the smut mill through the 
spout into the garner, then it will do to have a 
small blower directly under the smut mill, but if 
taken from the machine by elevators, the blow¬ 
er ought to be erected right over the garner 
that feeds the stone, as dust is always settling 
about the elevators. 

This smut machine is tlfe cheapest for all 
kinds of mills, from the smallest grist to the 
largest flouring mill, being free from all unne¬ 
cessary friction, and when smooth are easily 
sharpened by punching over until the sheet iron 
is worn out, which will last three or four years, 
and can be replaced in a short time when worn 
out. From an eighth to a sixteenth, is wide 
enough to punch the sheet iron for the concave. 


- 

REMARKS ON A LATE INVENTION OF INTRODU¬ 
CING air BETWEEN MILL STONES WHEN GRIND¬ 
ING. 

This invention was patented a few years ago, 
by a miller, in the State of Ohio, and from the 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


143 


ingenuity displayed in the contrivance, pro¬ 
mised a flattering hope of its utility as an as¬ 
sistant means, in having the meal cooled in the 
operation of grinding, but this artificial means 
of using air between the mill stones must prove 
a failure, and the reason is, it comes in contact 
with two essential principles of natural philoso- 
phy. the first being that of friction, and the se¬ 
cond, the natural and only element of friction, 
heat. The inventor should have first examined 
the natural laws by which friction is produced, 
and then he could have clearly seem the impos¬ 
sibility of suppressing the heat of mill stones, 
while performing the operation of grinding, as 
every intelligent miller must know, that pres¬ 
sing grain between two millstones creates the 
very agent that performs the grinding, being 
friction, and as heat is the element of friction, 
the amount of friction produced by a mill stone 
when grinding is as the square root of the 
amount of pressure used, consequently the 
amount of air necessary to repel the h$at pro¬ 
duced by the friction of grinding would have to 
be great enough to blow the stone off the cock 
head. Our remarks on this subject are based 
on natural philosophy, together with an exami¬ 
nation of the invention in operation. Tho 






i44 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


mode of using this artificial air between mill 
stones, as applied by the patentee, is extremely 
simple, a good feature in this principle, as the 
expense of the contrivance is small. A large 
bellows is placed in the cog pit, conducting a 
given quantity of air into four attached pipes 
which enter the mill stones through the corners 
of the bush, the pipes being sunk as deep as is 
necessary, in the four leading furrows nearest 
the corner follower of the bush in the head stone, 
and open at the ends of the pipes to admit the 
passage of the air. This is only an outline of 
the principle, being sufficient for our purpose, to 
convey a proper idea of the application and use 
of the invention for the use of all those millers 
who have not examined the invention personally. 
The author refrains from passing any decided 
opinion on this invention, out of motives of del¬ 
icacy to the patentee, as well as other proprie¬ 
tors, but we consider that this invention would 
be more useful as a means of cooling the flour 
or meal, by having it applied in the cooler in¬ 
stead of the stone. We think that one-fiftieth 
part of the air applied in the cooler, or hopper, 
would effect the cooling of the meal more than 
it is possible for it to be done as applied through 
the stones, and we see no reason to prevent its 











THE AUTHOR’S GRAIN DRYER. 




























































































































































THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


145 


being useful in most sultry weather, when ap¬ 
plied in the cooler, by making the temperature 
of air below that of the surrounding air out¬ 
side, and the meal must bolt cleaner and in some 
cases better than without this artificial mode of 
conducting the air to the cooler. 


A DESCRIPTION OF THE AUTHOR’S GRAIN 
DRYER, PATENTED 1850. 

This machine is constructed in the following 
simple manner: It consists of two or more 
stationary cylinders, one above the other, and 
by the use of double transverse rakes, the grain 
is passed from the top cylinder to the bottom, 
and from that to the millstone, from which, af¬ 
ter being ground, it passes into a bolt made ex¬ 
pressly of fine brass wire. This machine is 
heated by an ordinary common furnace, on 
which the machine is built. The machine is 
constructed of iron entirely, and in the most 
durable manner. 

Having examined various machines for the 
same purpose, the author feels assured that his 
machine will extract the oil and moisture from 






146 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


Indian Corn, better than any other contrivance 
for a similar purpose, for the following reasons, 
namely : That owing to its peculiar construc¬ 
tion, a great heat can be brought to act on the 
grain in the last stage of drying, or, in other 
w r ords, the different degrees of heat which the 
grain encounters, on this principle of stationary 
cylinders, is more beneficial than if the degrees 
of heat on each cylinder was equal j as the heat 
on the bottom cylinder is always the greatest, 
and which acts on the grain last. This is a 
principle which my machine commands overall 
others. Next, the combination of stationa¬ 
ry cylinders being such as to allow the heat to 
act on each other, as the number of cylinders 
above the bottom are all punched, so as to ad¬ 
mit the heat to operate on each in succession ; 
also, it being constructed out of material which 
renders i! fire proof. 

It is entirely an original invention of the au¬ 
thor, perfectly simple in its construction, and 
will make a decided improvement in that great 
staple production of the soil of most of the 
states of this Union. As, from the nature of 
Indian corn, w ithout being properly dried, it be¬ 
comes an article of dangerous investment, in 
commercial trade, for either the miller or mer- 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


147 


chant. In warm weather, it will heat and sour 
before it reaches market, which prohibits the 
merchant from operating largely in the purchase 
of this grain until late in the coming season *, 
consequently our farmers receive no return from 
this crop until so late a period in the following 
season, that the country generally does not re¬ 
alize one half the benefit from this extensive crop. 
A knowledge of the importance it would be to 
those states, that raise large surplus quantities 
of this grain so much wanted in other countries, 
induced the author to construct some means for 
accomplishing what he conceives to he a great 
end or improvement in this particular, which 
will dry from one hundred to one thousand bush¬ 
els of corn per day, with one machine. Every 
intelligent farmer will acknowledge the bene¬ 
fit derived from my invention, which will ena¬ 
ble him to receive the lull value for his corn 
crop by making it an article of immediate de¬ 
mand, either by the merchant or miller, who buy 
it for export. The price of Indian corn in all 
our western markets, is always, in the fall and 
winter, lower than western farmers can afford 
to raise it for, and always will be, until it can 
be properly manufactured at home, and sent to 
our commercial cities, for export, in a situation 




148 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


that will warrant capital being imployed in the 
purchase of it. For such is our machine inten¬ 
ded. 

According to chemical analysis, corn contains 
a proportion of moisture double that of any oth¬ 
er of the cerial grains, and retains it during its 
natural existance. As oil is a large portion of 
its componant parts, it prevents the moisture 
from evaporating, only by artificial means. 

My invention may also be profitably used in 
drying wheat, as well as corn, and save a large 
amount of capital frequently lost by those who 
deal largely in this kind of produce. Wheat 

should unquestionably be dried before it is 
ground, if the flour is wanted to keep any or¬ 
dinary length of time, particularly for export. 
It will also yield much more flour per bushel, 
and require about one half the machinery to 
manufacture it that it otherwise does, where it 
is not dried. The quality of the flour is improv¬ 
ed at least ten per cent; as by drying the wheat, 
all impurities of a vegetable nature are entirely 
consumed ; and by extracting its natural mois¬ 
ture, the flour will consume, when baked, more 
water than it would before the grain was dried, 
which ma*kes the bread much more palatable, it 
being more spungy than bread made from flour 


THE AMERICAN MILLER 149 

to any climate j and if proper care is taken to 
dry the barrels over a charcoal fire previous to 
packing, the flour will remain sweet for years, 
and stand the salt water equally as well as a 
barrel of beef or pork. 

For farther information on this subject, the 
reader is referred to an article in this work, by 
Prof. Burke, taken from his Report to the Com¬ 
missioner of Patents of the United States, for 
1848. 


RULES FOR THE PURCHASE OF WHEAT 

FOR MILLERS’ USE. 

Til s is a subject of much importance, to both 
the miller and farmer, as well as all others deal- 
ing in Wheat—the standard weight of which is 
held at GO lbs, per measured bushel of 32 
quarts. But the deleterious effects which this 
crop is so often subject to, renders frequent 
disappointment to both miller and farmer, by 
wheat crops frequently falling short, per meas¬ 
ured bushel of this referred to standard weight, 
which requires some plan for the mutual bene¬ 
fit and protection of both parties. 

13 








150 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


In a great many of our milling establ ishments, 
a rule of dockage, as it is termed, prevails in the 
following proportion : All that the measured 
bushel falls short of 60 lbs. one pound is added 
to make up this shrinkage, as in the case of 
wheat weighing hut 56 lbs. per measured bushel, 
64 is required, and in like proportion as the 
case may be. Now this plan of dockage I 
should not at all recommend, from the fact that 
it raises a prejudice in the minds of farmers 
generally, against the mill, wherever this plan 
prevails. As the difference in judgment of the 
buyer and seller of this article conflicts so fre¬ 
quently, the deduction, according to the forego¬ 
ing rules, does not at all suit the views of far¬ 
mers generally. 

To obviate this difficulty, I should recom¬ 
mend the miller to deal in the arlicle of wheat 
as the merchant floes in the article of calicoes, 
broadcloths, or any other description of goods, 
whose relative value is fixed according to its 
quality. This I deem to be the true and gen¬ 
eral rule which should be adopted by all mer¬ 
chant millers. The only exception which should 
be taken to this plan, is when the miller does 
custom flouring \ that is where farmers have 
their wheat floured by the barrel, on their own 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


151 


account—and in this case only, where the far¬ 
mer has the miller restricted as to the number 
of bushels of wheat allowed for each barrel of 
flour There are many seasons that wheat 
overruns its standard weight, and as frequently 
it falls short ol it. When the grain is well 
filled, it is to the advantage of the farmer more 
than the miller, as good plump wheat, well' 
cleaned, generally overruns some two or more 
pounds per bushel, measured according to the 
6pecies. 

The different species of wheat require also 
to be considered, in the profits of millers, as the 
yield of flour of each is as varied as the differ¬ 
ent samples vary. This is the result of simple 
experience, which millers are all, more or less 
acquainted with.* That sample of wheat that 
weighs heaviest, does not always make the 
most flour. For, as a general thing, the sam¬ 
ple of wheat called Mediterranean, for actual 
weight, exceeds by some pounds any other sam¬ 
ple. In this particular now, most millers know 
that this is not the description for merchant 
flour, from the fact that it is of a coarse, hard 
nature, difficult to grind, and always bolts so 
very free, that the flour is quite specky, and 
partaking entirely of the farinaceous substance 



152 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


more than anv other of the kind, besides con- 
taining less starch than most other samples of 
wheat. But as regards its nutricious qualities, 
it is inferior to none of the wheat species. It 
contains about 20 per cent of gluten, which 
makes it a desirable sample for family flour and 
home use. But being so far below other sam¬ 
ples in the quantity of starch,* which tends to 
give the berry a dark appearance, renders it 
comparatively useless for transportation, the 
ilour having a coarse specky appearance, which 
tends very much to injure its sale. 

As regards the best quality of wheat for 
millers’ use, I recommend the Michigan White 
Flint, it being superior in richness, containing 
much less water and more gluten than other 
qualities grown in the western states. There 
are of this specie two distinct kinds, namely the 
large White Flint, and the Michigan Dwarf; 
the latter being of a more delicate and rich 
quality of wheat, and producing flour of the best 
quality. At the exhibition of agricultural speci¬ 
mens exhibited by the Michigan State Agricul¬ 
tural Society in 1849, at the city of Detroit, 
these two last mentioned samples of wheat took 
first and second premiums, in preference to all 
others exhibited—tire author being the exhibited 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


153 ' 


of the Dwarf White Flint, and received the 
premium for the same. This seems to be par¬ 
ticularly adapted to the luxuriant soil of Michi¬ 
gan ; and if it were possioie to deliver it in the 
New York market in the same state of neatness 
that Oswego and Genesee flour is brought to 
that market, Michigan flour would jusdy merit 
the preference. But the distance being so much 
greater, and re-shipping so frequent, by which 
the barrels become racked and soiled, to that 
extent that the western miller has those difficul¬ 
ties to contend with, that are entirely unknown 
to millers in western New York. For it is a 
notorious fact, that the heaviest milling estab¬ 
lishments in New York are almost exclusively 
supplied with western Wheat; and principally 
of mixed qualities, from spring wheat upwards, 
and from wh.ch the Genesee flour is principally 
made. But its going to market in such a nice 

clean manner, is the sole reason of its generally 
commanding a better price. Which fully cor- 

roberates the old proverb, a man is known and 
respected in proportion to the quality of the 
cloth in the coat that he wears ; and a maxim 
of philosophy extensively countenanced by all 
city flour inspectors, whose judgment is fre¬ 
quently guided by the outward exterior of a bar- 


154 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


rel of flour, than by the contents and quality of 
the interior, which for some years past has oper¬ 
ated very much to thedisadvantage of all wes¬ 
tern millers who had not|a flour agent to receive 
and dispose of their flour for them which was 
actually necessary in New York markets un¬ 
til recently. By a wise legislative act, the 
office of Public Flour inspector is now abolished, 
which tends to place western fancy brands on a 
par with stately Genesee, which previous to this 
was not the case. 

See article on the inspection of flour. 


THE PROPER METHOD FOR FITTING THE BALE 

AND DRIVER TO THE MILL STONE. 

This operation of fitting the irons in mill 
stones, requires a great degree of accuracy by 
the millwright. In the first part of the process, 
the gains should be laid from the exact centre 
of the stone for both bale and driver. If the 
old fashion transverse driver is used, it is better 
to have boxes to drive against. After these 
gains are ready to receive their irons, the bale 
should be first inserted, and stoned to the 



tfHE AMERICAN MILLElt. 155 

centre. Before the bale is inserted to its place, 
great care should be taken that the gains which 
receive it are smooth at the bottom, and both 
exactly of the same depth; for if the bale is 
not perfectly level at each end, the stone can¬ 
not be made to drive true, and will always get 
out of balance as soon as it is set in motion, 
which is a great deal ot trouble to the miller 
to keep the spindle neck tight. Then 
place the Ifflle in the gains. The stone being 
level, fasten a small board in the eye of the 
stone—called the centre board—then find the 
exact centre of the stone on the board, bore a 
hole large enough to admit a plumb line through 
with a ball and fine point; then move the ball 
until it agrees exactly with the plumb points, 
then it is supposed to be in the centre of the 
stone. Make it perfectly fast with iron wedges 
tapered a little for the purpose; then fasten the 
boxes to the driver, by means of four wood 
wedges, allowing, at least, one inch at each end, 
and one inch on the reverse side from which it 
drives, for play room. Then insert the driver 
and boxes into the gains prepared to receive 
them. Place the spindle into the irons, as when 
running, and make a tram to go from the spin¬ 
dle neck to the periphery of the stone, similar 





156 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


to the one used for tramming the spindle to the 
centre of the bed stone, with a piece long enough 

to go through the sweep, and extend perpendicu¬ 
lar to the spindle point, where it should go 
through a small transverse cap, that plays on the 
spindle point, seven inches long, with a hole 
through it to receive the point of the spindle. 

This is what is called a tram for 
placing the driver in its proper position.— 
To drive the stone by them?* turn the 
sweeps moving the driver by iron wedges drove 
between the stone and boxes, until the quill 
touches alike all around the stone. The spin¬ 
dle should be held perfectly plumb until com¬ 
pleted. Take some dough or clay and plaster it 
well on the outside of the bale and driver, to 
prevent the bed from running out, as it is poured 
in around the irons. There is another kind of 
driver used, which drives by the bale, called a 
swallow taii driver. This kind is the best, as 
it saves cutting away the stone from the eye 
where it is so much wanted, and is trammed to 
drive just as the other kind, by chipping away 
the touching parts till it trams perfectly with 
the driver and the bale. It requires room for 
play just as the other kind, and is much better 
as a driver, by its not taking up so much room. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


157 


REMARKS ON PACKING FFOUR, 

WITH A PACKER’S TABLE FOR TIIE SAME. 

As one branch of the business connected 
with tne flouring mill, the packing requires some 
attention to its department; in particular, clean¬ 
liness on the part of the packer cannot be too 
strictly recommended. The next point in con¬ 
nection, is the necessity of properly preparing 
the flour barrels, by setting all the hoops before 
nailing, and then using just enough of nails in 
each barrel, which should not be less than one 
dozen. Then before the flour is put into the 
barrel, each mill should be furnished with a 
portable coal furnace, and each barrel should be 
well aired over this fire previous to its being 
packed. This will purify the barrel of all acids, 
and gasous substances, which tend to sour the 
flour by lactic acid fermentation which is gen¬ 
erated from substances in oak timber if not 
thoroughly dry. In marking the tare on the 
barrel it should be done on the scribed end that 
is taken out. In weighing the barrels some mills 
make a rule of deducting one pound for the 
shrinkage of the same, but in all cases the full 
amount of flour should be allowed, with one and 
one-fourth pound for waste. This will tend 
materially to the credit of the mill in establish- 


158 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


ing a straight brand. Flour barrels packed in 
the western States require to be some heavier 
than those used nearer market, and well hooped, 
with the chime hoops one and a quarter inches 
wide, weighing from eighteen to twenty pounds. 

PACKER’S TABLE. 

W’ght of bbls. Tub w’ght When pack.jW’ght of bbls. Tub wg lit. Pack' 


15 

lbs. 

0 

211 

lbs. 

21 

lbs. 

0 

217 

16 

<< 

u 

212 

u 

22 

V. 

u 

218 

17 

u 

<< 

213 

« 

23 

it 

u 

219 

18 

u 

u 

214 

u 

24 

(t 

It 

220 

19 

(( 

u 

215 

u 

25 

u 

«< 

221 

20 

u 

u 

21G 







REMARKS ON BRANDING FLOUR IN BARRELS. 

This part, although frequently done careless¬ 
ly, without sufficient attention to its neatness ? 
requires the miller’s attention, to see that the 
quality of the flour is equal to the ensignia it 
bears. This is an essential which every respec¬ 
table mill should keep inviolate. All good 
mills of first class should have at least two 

brands, superfine extra, and superfine. First qual¬ 
ity wheat, if manufactured properly, will bear 
the extra, Inferior wheat will not, and second 




THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


159 


grinding should never be branded higher than 
fine in any case. I also recommend too colors 
for the brands of each mill: Venetian red for 
second brand, and light blue for first brand, 
mixed with spirits of turpentine, put on with a 
soft brush, and branded on the opposite end 
from the one marked with the tare, 

The packer should have a similar table to this 
in front ol his scales, with the weight of the 
tub included. 


MAUKS’S PATENT BOLT. 

This principle of constructing bolts has been 
but lately introduced to the milling public, and 
called by the inventor, a hot bolt. The term 
hot we have omitted. We consider the im¬ 
provement regulated entirely by a good princi¬ 
ple of natural philosophy, as the bolt is placed 
in a cylinder, air tight, which prevents any 
pressure of the surrounding atmosphere on the 
outside of the bolting cloth, and forming a draft 
from the inside of the bolt, as large quantities 
of air brought from the stone and elevators into 
the bolt, gives an outward pressure, by which 





160 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


the meshes of the clotii are always kept open, 
consequently a bolt constructed in this way will 
holt nearly as last again as the old plan ol con¬ 
struction. 

But it can make no difference as to the state 
in which the meal is in, whether hot or cold, if 
ground properly, and in all cases bolts faster 
and more free where the meal is cool than 
otherwise, as it is known the finer the meal is 
ground the more the natural clement of mois¬ 
ture, which the grain contains, are extracted, 
which gives flour that savory feeling when 
ground too fine, that operates like paste on the 
bolts. This invention does away with a great 
many useless wheels, and tends to improve the 
power thereby. But when adopted for merchant 
flour, I should prefer the conveyor which con¬ 
ducts the flour to be separate from the bolt, as 
used by the inventor. 


ON THE INSPECTION OF FLOUK, 

The duty of tne flour inspector is one which 
requires a vast amount of experience in the 
different qualities of flour to perform it proper¬ 
ly, and no inspector of flour should be allowed 



THE AMERICAN MILLER 161 

to hold that office who is not a practical miller, 
and as public officers of inspection are fast 
going out ol date, much to the credit of those 
States where this office, as a public one, is 
abolished, millers generally will stand a better 
chance in this respect. It is absolute nonsence 
to have a person authorized by Legislative en¬ 
actment to pass his judgment on this great sta¬ 
ple of our country. We might just as well say 
inspectors are necessary to inspect cloth, cot¬ 
ton, or any other article that the merchant has 
to sell. But almost any man may be his own 
inspector if he considers or becomes acquain¬ 
ted with the essentials requisite to be considered 
in inspecting flour, and they are: first, color, 
the degree of fines next; and these constitute 
the leading principles of inspection. For all 
samples of flour that possess a bright orange 
caste, and feels lively, and possesses a fine grit 
on feeling it between the thum and fore fin¬ 
ger, such a sample as this does not require four 
cents per barrel, for an inspector to say that 
it is good. If the flour is too specky, it will not 
possess the bright orange cast, as described, 
but exhibit a grayish color, soon detected.— 
But specks in flour, when it does not change the 

color of it to a gray, is no injury, but an advan- 

14 


162 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


tage, for the flour contains more nutriment 
when made on No. 8 bolting cloth than of finer 
texture, as the speck of flour is generally com¬ 
posed of the glutenous substance contained in 
the wheat, and gives that body to flour made on 
No. 8 cloth, which flour made on finer cloth 
does not possess. Finer bolting cloths allow 
all the starchey part of the wheat to pass 
through them, being always pulverized finer 
than the gluton, which is tougher and more 
clastic, and the less of the latter the more val¬ 
uable; and I further lay it down as an estab¬ 
lished fact, that fioi r possessing a good rich 
orange color should never deter the purchaser 
from buying it, specks to the contrary, notwith¬ 
standing. 

For the accommodation of dealers in the 
staple of flour, a better plan can be resorted to 
than the old system of maintaining an officer 
for that specific purpose, as follows: The 
board of trade in each commercial city 
should have a register of all flour brands com¬ 
ing for sale to their particular markets.— 
T1 is register should state what State and 
county said flour came from, the name of the 
mill, and all particular marks on the same, and 
also the quality of said hour when registered in 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


163 


the following style, as fine superfine No. 1, 
No. 2, No. 3, these being the highest or extra 
grade. This system would have a desired in¬ 
fluence, as by it all persons could have the 
character of their particular mills fully estab¬ 
lished, according to the quality of their flour. 
This register should be established by some 
municipal law, and monthly report of said re¬ 
gister be made and published by the leading 
commercial papers of the city, or market, where 
such register is kept. 

Any city or market adopting the foregoing 
observations would ensure a benefit equal to 
that derived now from the use of the bank note 
detector. 


164 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


REPORT, 

f 

On the Breadstuff's of the United States—their 
relative value , and the injury which they sustain 
by transport , warehousing r fyc-—By Lewis C. 
Beck, M. D. 

Rutgers’ College, > 
New Brunswick, N. J., Dec. 15, 1848. $ 
Sir —I beg leave to submit, in as concise a 
manner as possible, the results of my research¬ 
es in regard to the breadstuff's of the United 
States since April last. The work has been 
prosecuted in accordance with the instructions 
which I have received from you j and I hope 
its execution, thus far, will commend itself to 
your favor and to that of the public. Being 
impressed with its importance, I have spared 
no pains to prepare myself for the faithful dis¬ 
charge of the trust with which you have been 
pleased to honor me. 

I deem it proper to state distinctly, that my 
constant aim has been to render this investi^a- 
Uon useful. My object has been to show in the 
simplest manner, and with as few technicalities 
aa possible, how the value of the various bread¬ 
stuff's may be determined, their injury guarded 
against, and their adulterations detected. Whilst 
I am by no means insensible to the importance- 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


165 


of accuracy, and yield a willing homage to those 
who are engaged in minute and careful analyses, 
I supposed that the purpose which you had in 
view would be best accomplished by the employ¬ 
ment of such processes as may be easily under¬ 
stood and even repeated by all those who feel 
sufficient interest in tin subject to read the de¬ 
scription which I shall give of them. I concur 
entirely in the remarks made by a reviewer of 
the first report on coals suited to the (British) 
steam navy, “that the neglect of government to 
aid science is due, in a great measure, to the 
mistaken views of scientific men. They have 
too often overlooked or disregarded those mat¬ 
ters which have a practical tendency, which 
politicians alone consider of importance.”— 
“Men engaged in maintaining the balance of 
power and regulating the complicated machin¬ 
ery of a great commercial and manufacturing 
commonwealth, however capacious their minds, 
cannot be expected to entertain the theoretical 
views of the philosopher, who sacrifices his 
knowledge of the world to his love of science.” 

I thought it proper thus to announce the plan 
which has been adopted in these researches, to 
render them useful to the many , without attempt¬ 
ing to make additions to the already accumula*‘ 

14 * 


166 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


ted stores of the few. As the people, through 
their representatives, have furnished the means 
for carrying on this work, they arc entitled to 
• receive all the benefits which are to be dc rived 
from it. 

1 have only to add that my attention, thus far, 
has been almost exclusively directed to wheat 

and wheat flour. I propose during the next 
year, should the work be continued, to extend 
the examination to such samples of these as 
may hereafter be received, and then to proceed 
to that of maize and maize mea 1 , which have re¬ 
cently become such important articles of export. 

I have the honor to be y( nr obedient servant, 

LEWIS. C. BECK. 
To the honorable Edmund Burke, 

Commissioner of Patents. 


REPORT. 

Agriculture, commerce, and the arts, con¬ 
stitute the chief bus.ness of the industrious por¬ 
tions of our race, and it is to the; p ysical pe¬ 
culiarities of a coi ntry that we arc chiefly to 
refer the predomin ince of one or other of these 
pursuits. Thus England, With hor vast miner- 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


167 


al wealth, and her dense population, must al¬ 
most of necessity be a manufacturing nation \ 
and, although she is also noted lor her ex,en¬ 
ded commerce, and her improved agiiculture, 
the great attention which she has paid to the 
latter, may, perhaps, be fairly ascribed to those 
peculiar views concerning the interchange be¬ 
tween na ions which have heretofore prevailed. 
The rich and valuable mines of the cmtral por¬ 
tions of the continent of Europe, and the nu¬ 
merous ar s which can flourish only in their im¬ 
mediate vicinity, must ever give occupation to 
a large portion of their inhabitants. Compar¬ 
atively few commercial advantages are enjoyed 
by them, and the produce of their agr culture 
seldom ris s above the amount which is neces¬ 
sary for the supply of their own immediate 
wan s. In all these countries, therefore, the 
failure of a sjng'e crop is the cause of serious 
apprehension, and in some of them, as in Aus¬ 
tria, although a large proportion of the popu¬ 
lation is engaged in agriculture, there is need 
of a yearly importation of breads nils. Ibis 
lias been ascribed to a defective mode ol t cage, 
but I am inclined to believe tnat it arises in 
part at least, if not entirely, from the high price 
of the land. It is the large returns which the 


1G8 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


farmer must extort from the soil in order to 
meet the interest of the heavy investment, which 
discourages him in his efforts, and which 
at length has the effect of diminishing the 
amount of the agricultural products. All the 
appliances of science and art may be called into 
requisition to increase the yield of the soil, but 
every improvement of this kind only increases 

the price of the land and amount of rent which 
must be raised from it. When we look at the 
contrast which the United States present in this 
respect, we need not wonder, that while travel¬ 
lers speak in raptures of the agriculture of 
France and Belgium, Germany and England, 
the famished population of some of those coun¬ 
tries has been fed by the surplus produce of a 
comparatively rude mode of tillage. 

During the year 1847, breadstuff's to the value 
of $43,000,0C0, were exported from this country 
to Great Britain and Ireland alone. The vast 
agricultural resources of the United States were 
then for the first time duly appreciated. Not¬ 
withstanding the quantity exported during the 
present year bears no proportion to that of the 
preceeding one, there can be little doubt that 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


169 


our country is destined to be the granary of the 
world.* We cannot boast of those mineral 
riches which are found elsewhere; still de- 
posites of iron ore and coal, those most 
valuable products, exist here in great abun¬ 
dance. But our chief treasure is the 'soil, 
and the immense extent of our republic, and the 
liberal policy which has been pursued in regard 
to the disposition of its lands, places it in the 
power of almost every inhabitant to become 
the owner of a domain, which in Europe could 
be possessed only by a favored few. 

It is a common mistake that land which is in 
the highest state of cultivation, and yields the 
largest crops, is necessarily the most valuable. 
It is stated by Boussingault, that a field in the 
neighborhood of Pampeluna, where the rent of 
land is extremely low, gave a profitable crop of 
wheat, although the yield was not more than 
from six and a half to seven and a half bushels 
per acre. “An English farmer, 5 ’ says Washing¬ 
ton in a letter addressed to Arthu rYoung, “must 
have a very different opinion of our soil when 

*We must respecfully dissent from the learned Professor, in this part 
of his report, believing as we do that portion of the globe, known to 
either the ancients or moderns, surpasses the United States in the rich¬ 
ness and purity of her minerals ; not even the gold of Opher and Tarshish 
will bear comparison with the products of the Eldorado and Sacramento 
of California. 



170 THE AMERICAN MILLER. 

he hears that with us an acre produces no 
more than eight or ten bushels of wheat, but he 
must not forget that in all countries where land 
is cheap and labor is dear, the people prefer cul¬ 
tivating much to sultivating well.” 

It is this very extent of our country, and the 
cheapness of the land, which now, as at the date 
of the letter of Washington, contribute to ren¬ 
der our comparatively rude culture the most 
profitable in the world. Thus, while the aver¬ 
age of the produce of wheat in the United 
States is not probably above 15 or 16 bushels 
to the acre, that in Germany is more than 25 
bushels ; in England, 25 or 26 ; and in France, 
24. Still, as has been already stated, the 
amount of breadstufls raised here, far exceeds 
that produced in either of the countries above 
named. And the same consideration, viz :— 
cheapness of land, together with the rapid and 
cheap rate at which, by machinery, the crop 
harvested and made ready for the miller, must 
give to the western States and Territories 
great advantages for the cultivation of the ce- 
rial grain. 

As there is no probability that, for many 
years to come, our population will be over¬ 
crowded, and the price of good cultivable land 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


171 


be much increased, it is easy to see what must 
become the leading occupation of the multi¬ 
tude who will here seek refuge from the pover¬ 
ty and oppression of other countries. The 
truth of this proposition will probably be quite 
apparent to those whose attention has been di¬ 
rected to the subject. But a large number of 
our citizens have no just idea of the agricultur¬ 
al resources of the United States. One object 
of this report, therefore, is to spread out the 
facts, and to give them the widest publicity; 
to show, indeed, that while commerce and the 
arts must give employment to a great number 
of persons, our great business is agriculture *, 
and that the true interests of the country will 
be promoted by giving to this pursuit all neces¬ 
sary encouragement. 

I have said that our mode of culture is still 
comparatively rude. It was quaintly remarked 
to a traveller by the gardener of Drummond 
'castle, that “if science once gets into the far¬ 
mer’s ground it penetrates into the very heart 
of a nation.” This is perhaps true ; but it 
must be confessed that, thus far, the influence of 
science upon agriculture has been very trifling 
when compared with the vast improvements 

which it has effected in the arts. 1 he differ- 

* 


172 THE AMERICAN MILLER. 

% 

i 

ence proceeds principally from two causes as¬ 
signed by Count Chaplal: “The first is, that 
the greater part of the phenomena offered to us 
by agriculture, are the effects of the laws of 
vitality, which govern the functions of plants, 
and these laws are still in a great measure un¬ 
known to us; whilst in the arts which are ex¬ 
ercised upon rude and inorganic matter, all is 
regulated, all is produced, by the action either 
of physical laws only, or of simple affinity, 
which are known to us. The second cause, is 
that in order to apply the physical science to 
agriculture, it is necessary to study their oper¬ 
ations profoundly, not only in the closet, but in 
the field.” It will not, therefore, appear sur¬ 
prising that the researches which have been 
made in regard to plants have often assumed a 
wrong direction, and have not led to those im¬ 
portant results which were promised upon the 
one side and expected upon the other. Thus 
most of the analyses of the proximate princi¬ 
ples of plants, not having been made upon such 
as are in a perfectly pure state, are to be con¬ 
sidered only as approximations of the truth.— 
The same remark will, in a great measure, ap¬ 
ply to the numerous determinations of the qual¬ 
ity and quantity of the ash obtained by the 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


173 


combustion of the grains used as breadstuff's. 
“The grain is an assemblage of various distinct 
parts, differing from one another in composition, 
and varying also very much in their relative 
proportions. So also the dried stem of a plant, 
the entire straw of a cereal grass, may be burn¬ 
ed in like manner. But this, too, is an assem¬ 
blage of many parts. 'The exterior less vascu- 
lar portion, the interior full of vessels, the flu¬ 
ids which circulate through them, all contain 
their peculiar inorganic substances, and ail vary 
almost endlessly in their relative proportions.” 

Similar objections might he urged against 
the analyses of soils which have been so vigor¬ 
ously prosecuted by many chemists. That the 
facts which have thus accumulated may have 
some value, is not to be doubted*, but they 
must after all be considered as only introductory 
to researches conducted with a more just appre¬ 
ciation of their true influence upon the improve¬ 
ment of agriculture. It is to he feared that in 
many cases these almost useless labors have 
been suggested by the crude and hasty gener¬ 
alizations, which, unfortunately within a few 
years past, have too often usurped the place of 
patient inquiry. A recent writer has well ob¬ 
served, that “of the classes which have been 


174 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


thus led away there has been none which has 
been so far misguided as the sober one of far¬ 
mer. It is to him that the vegetable quack 
appeals, offering, in the application of chemical 
manures, electricity, magnetism, and other 
agents, harvests more golden than the world 
had ever seen before.” 

I trust it will not be inferred from any of the 
remarks which I have made, that I undervalue 
the importance of physical science in the im¬ 
provement of agriculture. On the contrary, 1 
doubt not that with a right appreciation of its 
objects and a true direction of its labors, it is 
destined to contribute greatly to increasing the 
productiveness of the soil. But such results 
cannot be immediately realized. “Years of ex¬ 
periment must pass by, numerous failures must 
be experienced, before the real advantages of 
scientific farming will be evident.” It is sin¬ 
cerely to be hoped that the false expectations 
which have been from time to time held out by 
visionary men, may not have the effect of ex¬ 
citing in the minds of agriculturists a prejudice 
against all the improvements which may here¬ 
after be proposed 

The chief breadstuffs of the United States 
are wheat, rye, maize, and buckwheat. Of 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


175 


these, the first is by far the most important, 
and it is to its history, culture, and chemical 
examination, that particular attention is now 
to be directed. 

Wheat .—Wheat is the principal breadstuff’s 
of the United States and of most European na¬ 
tions. This, as well as the other cereal gras¬ 
ses, has probably come to us from the east; 
but it has been so much changed and improved 
by culture, that its connexion cannot be satis¬ 
factorily traced to any species of the genus now 
known to be growing wild. Of all the cereals, 
it is that which requires most heat, and its cul¬ 
ture first begins to be of importance below 60 ° 
north latitude in Europe, and considerably be¬ 
low that line on our continent. From the me¬ 
teorological observations which have been 
made, we infer that a mean heat of at least 39 ° 
Fahrenheat is necessary for the growth of 
wheat, and that during three or four months. 
The mean summer heat must rise above 55 ° 
Fahrenheit. It does hot, however, bear tropi¬ 
cal heat well ; in countries within the tropics 
it first occurs at altitudes which in climate cor¬ 
respond with the sub-tropical and temperate 
zones. 

There is a fact stated by the author just quo- 


176 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


ted which exhibits in a striking manner the ad¬ 
vantages our country must possess for raising 
and transporting the produce of this important 
cereal. It is, that although wheat is very pro¬ 
ductive and of excellent quality in Chili and the 
republic of Rio de la Plata, and immense quan¬ 
tities are sent to Peru and even around Cape 
Horn to Rio Janeiro, yet north American flour 
is sold at the market of Valparaiso, and the 
bakers are obliged to buy it, as it is cheaper than 
the flour made in the country, because there 
are no roads in the interior, and wages are ex¬ 
ceedingly high from want of sufficient, hands. 

There are f jw parts of the United States in 
which wheat may not be raised. But the produc¬ 
tiveness of the crop is influenced by various cir¬ 
cumstances, as soil, climate, and expense of 
transport to the great commercial depots. 
These, and the more profitable cultivation of 
other articles, as tobacco, rice, cotton, and the 
sugar cane, have nearly fixed the soul hern lim¬ 
it of the wheat growing region of the United 
States in North Carolina. The particular dis¬ 
tricts, however, in which the culture of this ce¬ 
real is most successfully prosecuted, are the 
western parts of New York and Pennsylvania, 
Ohio and the northwestern States and Ter- 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


177 


ritories. The rich and virgin soil of the wes¬ 
tern prairies seems to be peculiarly adapted 
to the growth of wheat ; and the great lines of 
communication which are already established 
between these and the Atlantic cities afford eve¬ 
ry facility for the transport of the surplus pro¬ 
duce. 

It has been already remarked that the pro¬ 
fits of the culture of this cereal do not depend 
upon the yield per acre, but upon the cheapness 
of the land, and the economy practised in its 
management. The want of precise information 
upon these cardinal points renders the state¬ 
ments which have been made in regard to the 
productiveness of wheat in various parts of the 
world of little practical value. Thus when we 
are told by Meyen that in Prussia the average 
produce of wheat is not more than five or six 
fold of the seed ; that in Hungary and Croatia 
it is from eight to ten fold 5 and that in some 
parts of Mexico the produce in favorable years 
is from twenty-four to thirty-five fold, the infor¬ 
mation is of no use to the farmer, because the 
relative expenses of the culture and the value 
of the crop are not stated. 

Notwithstanding what has been said concer¬ 
ning the profitable culture of wheat in large 

15 * 


178 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


portions of the United States, and the proba¬ 
bility that the great west will hereafter furnish 
the principal supply for export, we should by 
ao means overlook those causes which exert an 
influence upon the productiveness and quality 
of this grain. It has been ascertained without 
doubt that the real value of wheat and of the 
other cereals and breadstuflfs, depends mainly up¬ 
on the proportion of gluten and albumen which 
they contain, their starch, glucose and dextrine, 
or gum, not being considered nutritive. It ap¬ 
pears also that wheat exceeds all the other ce¬ 
reals in the quantity of nutritive matter which 
it yields. Another advantage which it posses¬ 
ses is, that it furnishes also a greater quantity 
of flour • for fourteen pounds of wheat yield 
thirteen pounds of flour, while fourteen pounds 
of oats yield only eight pounds, and an equal 
quantity of barley but twelve pounds. 

That wheat is peculiarly sensible to effects 
of soil and climate appears to be a well estab¬ 
lished fact. It is stated that even in different 
parts of Englan 1 tin crops and their produce 
are very various. The Sicilian and southern 
wheat generally contains a larger proportion 
of gluten than that irom more northern coun- 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


179 


tries. This, no doubt, arises from its more ra¬ 
pid growth, its harder and tougher grain, and 
its less proportion of moisture. Hence, also, 
it keeps better, and commands a higher price 
in market, especially when required for expor¬ 
tation. I have reason to believe.however, that 
the superiority of southern wheat has usually 
been over estimated, and that the proof almost 
always adduced of its containing more gluten 
than that from the north, viz : its employment in 
the manufacture of macaroni and vermicelli, is 
by no means conclusive. 

One of the most important points connected 
with the subject of wheat and wheat flour, is the 
proportion of water or moisture which they con¬ 
tain. We have the high authority of Boussin- 
gault for the statement that, in France, 44 it is 
undoubtedly in consequence of the large quan¬ 
tity of water which the nor* hern wheats contain, 
that we meet with such indifferent success when 
we attempt to keep them for any length of time 
in our granaries. The wheat of Alsace, for ex¬ 
ample, frequently contains 16 to 20 per cent, of 
moisture, and 1 have ascertained by various ex¬ 
periments that it is almost impossible to keep it 
without change in vessels hermetically sealed. 
To secure its keeping, the proportion of water 


180 THE AMERICAN MILLER. 

must be reduced from 8 to 10 per cent., and this 
is nearly the quantity of moisture contained in 
the hard and horny wheat of warm countries.” 

In five analyses of London flours,by Mr. J. 
Mitchell, the proportion of water varies from 
14.10 to 17.40 percent. 

The proportions of water in the above sam¬ 
ples range much higher than those given in the 
analyses of various flours performed by Van- 
quelin, which are from 8 to 12 per cent. They 
are also higher than those in the United States 
flours, the range of moisture being in the sam¬ 
ples which I have analysed from 12 to 14 per 
cent. 

This difference in the proportion of water, 
which seems to be a matter of so much conse¬ 
quence, is undoubtedly, in part, due to the dif¬ 
ference in the climate of the region in which the 
wheat is grown. This, indeed, is so well under¬ 
stood to be true, that the amount of bread ob¬ 
tained from different kinds of wheat flour is re¬ 
ferred to the same cause. Thus, “ it has been 
shown by a comparative experiment tried some 
years ago, upon Scotch and English wheat of 
apparently equal quality, that a quarter of the 
latter, though yielding rather less flour, yet 
when made into bread gave 13 lbs. more than 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER 


181 


the former. This is accounted for by the great¬ 
er strength of sunshine, under the climate of 
England, having an effect upon the grain when 
ripening, which occasions the flour to absorb 
more water in the formation of dough.” 

From experiments which seem to be trust¬ 
worthy, it appears that the Alabama and the 
southern wheat flours generally, yield more 
bread than the northern or western. The gain 
in favor of the Alabama, as compared with the 
Cincinnati, is said to be 20 per cent. It is also 
stated by one of the most extensive London ba¬ 
kers, that American flour will absorb 8 or 10 
per eent. more of its own weight of water, in 
manufacturing it into bread or biscuit, than the 
English wheat. The English wheat of the same 
variety with the American, is invariably a larg¬ 
er and plumper berry. This is attributed to the 
longer time required for ripening in that com¬ 
paratively cooler and damper climate. The 
American, on the contrary, in ripening under a 
hot sun, evaporates a large proportion of water, 
and leaves the farina in a more condensed state, 
and when exposed again to moisture in cooling, 
it absorbs the additional quantity above stated. 
This is an important fact of which the dealer 
and consumer should be fully aware. 


182 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


No apology is necessary for the details which 
will be presented concerning the effect of water 
or moisture upon this cereal, as it is. a subject 
worthy of the most serious consideration. Al¬ 
though, as has been observed, the proportion of 
water in the wheat and wheat flour of the Uni¬ 
ted States is generally less than in those of Eng¬ 
land, France, and the north of Europe, it is of¬ 
ten in sufficient quantity to cause great losses, 
especially when shipped to tropical countries. 
So early as the year 1814, attention was di¬ 
rected to this in a valuable series of papers pub¬ 
lished by Mr. Jonas Humbert, of New York, a 
large dealer in flour, and at one time a deputy 
inspector of that article. He states that since 
the revolution, the price of the New York wheat 
flour in the markets of Europe and the West In¬ 
dies, had been gradually falling below that of 
Pennsylvania and Virginia. He asserts as the 
result of his own experiments, that the New r 
York flour* is equal to that obtained from wheat 

*We entirely concur with Mr. Humbert in the statement—-New York 
flour being equal to that obtained from wheat raised in any other State, 
knowing as we do that at least one half of the flour made in that State 
is manufactured from wheat grown in the western States, Ohio, Michi¬ 
gan, Indiana, Wisconsin and Illinois; and also the want of proper atten¬ 
tion to properly drying the grain before grinding, by which it might be 
cleansed from all impure substances, occasioned by exposure to damp¬ 
ness, which creates decomposition of the grain, and renders it useless 
for manufacturing into good flour, without some instantaneous remedy ; 
and drying stops farther decomposition.—- The Autiioe. 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


183 


raised in any other State or country ; and he 
attributes the deterioration in the price of the 
former to carelessness on the part of those who 
are engaged in its preparation and shipment. 
Among the points which lie enumerated are, a 
want of attention to the ventilation and proper 
drying of the grain before it is ground, the rapid 
and improper mode of grinding, regrinding the 
middlings, and mixing therewith the portion first 
ground, and also the still more objectionable 
practice, perhaps still followed, of mixing old 
and spoiled flour with newly ground wheat. 

It is stated that in Poland, where the ventila¬ 
tion and drying are continued for some time, 
wheat has been preserved sound and good for 
half a century ; its age never does it injury, and 
such wheat is said to yield handsomer and bet¬ 
ter flour than that obtained from the grain more 
recently harvested. In Dantzic, the preparation 
for keeping wheat continues for a year and 
sometimes longer; after this period it is often 
kept for seven years perfectly sound in the large 
granaries of that place, although surrounded by 
the sea. 

In regard to American w heat and wdieat flour, 
it may be remarked, that the proportion of water 
naturally existing in them is often increased by 





184 


T11E AMERICAN MILLER. 


carelessness in harvesting the grain, and in its 
transport and storage. In one sample of Indi¬ 
ana wheat flour recently analysed, which was 
sour and had but little more than one half the 
usual quantity of gluten, the injury was proba¬ 
bly caused by the hurried mode of packing, for 
the changes above noticed occured before the 
opening of summer. Sometimes, however, our 
flour is spoiled by being stored in damp, warm, 
and ill ventilated warehouses. The books of 
one inspector of the city of New York, shows, 
that in 1847 he inspected 218,679 barrels of 
sour and musty flour. He certifies that in - this 
amount he is of opinion that there was a loss 
sustained of $270,000. But as no flour that is 
known to be sour or bad is inspected, this state¬ 
ment gives a very imperfect idea of the loss in¬ 
curred, even in that city. The total amount of 
loss for the whole United States arrising from ; 
chemical changes in breadstufts by internal 
moisture, has been estimated at from §3,000,000 
to $5,000,000. 

Some remarks upon this subject, recently 
published by Mr. Brondgcesf, of Hamilton, \ 
Canada West, deserve to be here introduced. 
This gentleman has paid much attention to the 
preservation of food, both as a merchant and ' 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


186 


as president of the board of trade of Montreal 
and of Hamilton. He notices an article on the 
“Preservation of Food,” in the January number 
of the Westminster, the author of which pro* 
poses the exclusion of air, hy an air pump or 
otherwise, as a remedy for injuries sustained by 
breadstuff's, and very justly observes that these 
extreme measures arc wholly unnecessary, as 
arrangements perfectlv feasible will answer the 
purpose. He admits the necessity of something 
being done, as “the present system is wasteful, 
and contrary in many respects to common sense, 
the warehousing of grain is defective in every 
point of view. The common mode of shipping 
wheat or other grain in bulks, is the cause of 
injury with American grain, and I doubt not. 
also with the European. "The emptying of grain 
loose into Larges not over dry; spray and mois¬ 
ture on the voyage to the shipping port ; ex¬ 
posure to weather while being shipped, damp 
lining boards, damp vessels, damp during the 
voyage, and then again being exposed in a ligh¬ 
ter and put away in a damp warehouse, or in a 
low situation cn the bank of a river; all tend 
to the destruction even of the finest particles of 
grain. 

As remedies for all these injurious influences, 

1G 


186 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


Mr. Brondgeest proposes the shipment of grain 
in barrels like flour, and the proper kiln-drying 
of such varieties as are known not to keep 
well. The souring of flour, either on the riv¬ 
er or sea voyage, or after warehousing, he adds, 
“can be perf ctly prevented by the use of the 
kiln, either to the flour, or the wheat prior to 
grinding one-third to one-filth of the wheat 
being highly dried makes the whole keep per¬ 
fectly for years, and that third or fifth may be 
of the cheap spring grain, making much stron¬ 
ger and better flour ; but which if not kiln-dried 
would sour the whole.” 

In the report of the Commissioner of Patents, 
dated March, 1844, there arc some statements 
of interest in regard to kiln-dried flour and meal. 
From these it appears that Ohio flour, after hav¬ 
ing been subjected to the drying process, was 
kept in the southern and South American ports 
in good merchantable order, and in weather in 
which other flour not thus prepared invariably 
spoiled. The process of drying, here noticed, 
was conducted by the employment of hot air; 
and Mr. Gill, who claims the invention, states 


* In all capes the drying and extracting of moisture should be done 
before the grain is ground. Author. 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 187 

/ 

that 18 pounds of water are thus expelled from 
a barrel of flour. 

There can be no doubt, therefore, that the 
removal of a portion of the water which wheat 
flour and maize meal naturally contain, is the 
easiest and best means of preserving them. But 
the drying process, simple as it may seem, re¬ 
quires to be carried on with great care. The 
passage of the grain or flour, however rapidly, 
over highly heated surfaces is apt to scorch, 
and thus give them an unpleasant flavor. From 
the rapid evolution of the moisture in the form 
of steam by the heat thus applied, unless proper 
ventilation be also secured, further injury will 
probably result. The steam again condensing 
into water upon the cooling of the flour, may 
accumulate in particular parts of the mass ope¬ 
rated on, and thus, perhaps, render it at least 
equally as liable to injury as it would have been 
without the employment of this process. 

Another fact which I have observed in those 
samples of wheat flour that have been exposed 
to a degree of heat high enough to expel all the 
water, is, that the gluten is less tough and elas¬ 
tic—a proof that its quality has been impaired. 
It is probable that the proportions of dextrine 
and glucose may thus also be increased at the 


188 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


expense of the starch. Under these circum¬ 
stances, a subsequent exposure to moisture and 
a slight elevation of temperature, establishes 
the lactic acid fermentation, which, I suppose, 
is the chief cause of the souring of flour. 

The advantages to be derived from artificial 
drying, are more fully attained by the inven¬ 
tion patented by Mr. J. R. Stafford in 1847, lhan 
by any other plan with which I am acquainted. 
It is based upon the process for drying organic 
bodies usually adopted in the laboratory. The 
grain or flour is brought into contact with a sur- 
face of metal heated by steam, and a due degree 
of ventilation, so important to the completion of 
the drying, is secured. As the heat is not 
raised above that of boiling water, there is no 
danger of injuring the quality, color, or flavor 
of the subslanccs subjected to its action.. The 
heat is, moreover, uniform, and the expense is 
said to be less than that of the mode of drying 
heretofore generally adopted. By Mr. Stafford’s 
apparatus 16 or 17 pounds of water are expelled 
from each barrel of flour; this reduces the pro¬ 
portion of water to four or five per cent, an 
amount too small to be productive of injury. 
Absolute dryness cannot be easily attained ex¬ 
cept by a long exposure of the flour to the heat, 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


189 


and it is not required for its preservation-, a re¬ 
duction of the amount of water to the small 
per ccnta<:e just stated, has been found to be 
amply sufficient to secure this object. • I cannot 
in my opinion, render a more important ser¬ 
vice to dealers in breads tuffs, than to recom¬ 
mend strongly the employment of this or a sim¬ 
ilar p:ocess of drying. 

Aitcr the proper ventilation and drying of the 
grain has been effected, there is still another 
point deserving of some considera ion. This is 
the absorptive power of the different kinds of 
flour, which I have found by experiment to be 
subject to considerable variation. The amount 
of moisture absorbed by the various samples 
which have been tried, alter having been brought 
to a state of absolute dryness, ranges from 8 to 
11.65 per cent, by*an exposure to the air of 
a room, for from IS to 24 hours. This differ¬ 
ence in the hygromctic character of flours must, 
I think, have an influence upon their preserva¬ 
tion, and will perhaps account for the fact, that 
with the same decree of carelessness and the 
same exposure, some kinds arc more !i b ? c to 
spoil than others. 'Hie remedies for all the 
difficulties to be apprehended from this source, 

are the employment of tight barrels, and the 

16 * 


190 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


avoidance of all unnecessary exposure of their 
contents to the air. 

Some remarks may be added more definitely 
to explain the various modes in which flour, es¬ 
pecially, is injured by the presence of an undue 
proportion of water under the influence of a 
warm climate. The general result is a diminu¬ 
tion in the quantity of gluten, or such a change 
m its quality as renders it unfit to produce good 
panification. It sometimes also favors the for¬ 
mation of sporules of different kinds of mush¬ 
rooms which are afterwards developed in the 
bread. 

Dumas states that the wheat of 1841, exhibit¬ 
ed in 1842, during a very warm summer, this 
defect in a very great degree. When these 
mushrooms were developed, the temperature 
was much elevated, and t1?e bread soon disap¬ 
peared, leaving only a reddish and disgusting 
mass. 

The number of sporules was much diminished 
by the thorough washing of the infected grain, 
followed by prompt desiccation. By reducing 
the proportion of water, increasing the dose of 
salt, and finally by raising the temperature of the 
oven, the development was in a measure pre¬ 
vented. 


CHE AMERICAN MILLER. 


191 


A few years since, I observed reddish spo- 
rules similar to those above noticed in a sam¬ 
ple of New Jersey Flour. The change took 
place in twenty-four hours after it had been 
made into paste with water. On repeating the 
experiment, the same result followed. 

According to Dumas, moisture and heat which 
often cause such changes in the most important 
constituent of wheat Flour, produce very little 
effect upon the starch which it contains. Al¬ 
though it is with some hesitation that I dissent 
from such high authority, the following facts 
appear to me to show that this idea is an incor¬ 
rect one: 

Starch is known to be composed of particles 
which are insoluble in cold water, but when ex¬ 
posed to a heat of 180 ° F., the pellicle of the 
grain bursts, and the contents are liberated. In 
a state of solution, it is quickly converted into 
dextrine and glucose, or grape sugar, by the ad¬ 
dition of a small quantity of diastase.* If this 
mixture be kept in a warm place for a few days, 
it acquires a new property, viz : that of conver¬ 
ting the glucose into lactic acid. This is de¬ 
nominated the lactic acid fermentation ; and, as I 

*This is a peculiar nitrogenous principle vrliich exists in the grain of 
the cereals after germination commences. 



192 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


have before suggested, it is probably one of the 
causes of the soaring of flour when exposed to 
high summer heats in its ordinary moist condi¬ 
tion. Hence it will be found that, while in sour 
flour the quantity of gluten is usually diminished, 
or its quality injured, the proportions of glucose 
and dextrine are also, in many cases, increased 
at the expense of the starch—a change which 
precedes the*dcvelopemcnt of the lactic fluid. 

One of the best modes of determining the real 
value of wheat and other flours, is to examine 
the bread made from them. The process of 
panification brings out all their defects, and as 
the rescarelies upon breadstuffs arc conducted 
chiefly with the view of ascertaining their suita- 
blenej-s for the manufacture of bread, it affords 
a good standard of comparison for the various 
samples subjected to experiment. It should be 
remembered, however, that bread is sometimes 
adulterated for the very purpose of enabling 
those who are engaged in its fabrication to use 
the poorer kinds of flour. Thus, Dumas states 
that in Belgium and the north of France, sulph¬ 
ate of copper (blue vitriol) has long been intro¬ 
duced into tlic manufacture of bread. By the 

employment of this salt, the bakers can use flour 
of middling and mixed quality; less labor is re¬ 
quired in its preparation, the panification is more 


THE AMERICAN MILLER 


193 


speedy, and by its addition a larger quantity of 
water is taken up. 

The use of alum in the fabrication of bread 
seems to have been practiced from a remote pe¬ 
riod. This, it is said, also secures to the baker 
the advantage of employing inferior kinds of 
wheat Hour, and even of mixing with the farina 
of beans and peas, without apparently injuring 
the quality of the bread. 

The alkaiine carbonates, the carbonate of 
magnesia, chalk, pipe clay and plaster of Paris, 
have all been used, either to correct the acidity 
of damaged flour, to preserve the moisture, or 
to increase the weight and whiteness of the bread. 
But it need scarcely to be observed that all these 
substances, with perhaps the exception of small 
additions of the alkaline carbonates, must ren¬ 
der the bread unwholesome. Fortunately, how¬ 
ever, the presence of most of them can be quite 
easily detected. 

Other frauds which have been resorted to are 
more dilhcult of detection ; but these are, hap- 
pity’ less prejudicial to health, although not al¬ 
ways perfectly harmless. Among these may be 
mentioned the adulteration of wheat flour with 
potato starch, the flour of leguminous plants, 
buckwheat, rice, linseed, &c. Mareska, in a 


194 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


recent paper, states that he has had occasion 
to examine several samples in which these frauds 
had been practiced, and he describes several 
processes by which their occurence may be as¬ 
certained. 

According to a statement made by a quarter¬ 
master in the United States army, one barrel of 
flour, or 196 lbs when in dough, contains about 11 
gallons, or 90 pounds of water, 2 gallons of yeast, 
and 3 pounds of salt; making a mass of 305 
pounds, which evaporates in kneading and ba¬ 
king about 40 pounds, leaving in bread about 
265 pounds ; the bread thus exceeded in weight 
the flour employed by about 33.50 per cent. 

Dumas informs us that 130 pounds of the 
common white bread of Paris are obtained from 
100 pounds of flour. To this he adds, that the 
flour contains 17 per cent, of water, the produce 
being then equivalent to 150 pounds of bread 
from 100 pounds of flour. As the American 
wheat flour seldom contains more than 14 per 
cent, of water, the statement of the quartermas¬ 
ter corresponds very nearly with that of the 
French chemists. The increase of weight in the 
bread over that of the flour, viz : 33.50 per 

cent, ought to afford an ample remuneration for 
its manufacture. But it is not unfrequently the 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


195 


case that larger demands are made by those 
who are engaged in this important branch of 
art. 

The deficiency in the weight of bread, and 
the extent of the imposition practiced in the 
sale of loaves at a certain price, can, in gener¬ 
al, be very easily ascertained. For example, 
the proper weight of the shilling loaf (New York 
currency) may be determined by reducing the ’ 
price of flour to shillings, and then dividing 196 
by this amount. Thus, the price of flour being 
$7 a barrel, (which is a sufficiently high average 
for even the best brands during the year past,) 
the shilling loaf should weigh three and a half 
pounds. For, 

7 times 8=56; 196—56=3 .50. 

F 

This will leave twenty loaves of the same weight, 
or $2 50 as the profit on the manufacture. 

Although the whiteness of bread is considered 
as a mark of its goodness, it has been ascertain¬ 
ed by Professor Johnston that fine flour contains 
a less proportion of nutritive matter than the 
whole meal. The correctness of this view has 
been confirmed during present investigation; 
for in two or three samples of wheat which I 
have analyzed, it was found that the amount of 
gluten in the fine flour was less than in the flour 




196 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


passed through a coarser sieve and containing 
a larger proportion of bran. 

These results, according to Professor John¬ 
ston, arc to be accounted for on the supposition 
that the part of the grain which is most abun¬ 
dant in starch crushes better and more easily 
under the millstones than that which, being rich¬ 
est in gluten, is probably also tougher, and less 
brittle. They are also consistent with the grea¬ 
ter nourishment generally supposed to reside in 
household-bread, made from the flour of the 
whole grain. But such is the controlling influ- 
ence of custom, that it is perhaps in vain to at¬ 
tempt a change, even though its benefits may 
be clearly proved by the researches of science, 
and by an extensive experience. 

ANALYSES OF WHEAT FLOUR. 

Before presenting the details of my analyses, 
it may not be amiss to offer a few explanations 
in regard to some researches of a similar kind, 
which have heretofore been made. The dis¬ 
crepancies in the published results of various an¬ 
alyses arise principally, I apprehend, from the 
different processes which have been employed. 

The table published in Davy’s Agricultural 
Chemistry gives the proportions of gluten or 


t 


/ 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


197 


albumen in English Middlesex wheat at 19.00 
per cent.; in Sicilian wheat, 23.90 per cent.; in 
Poland wheat, 20.00 per cent.; and in North 
American wheat, 22. 50. The mode pursued 
by this celebrated chemist has not, so far as 1 
know, been published, but the amount of nutri¬ 
tive principle is larger than that usually obtain¬ 
ed, a circumstance which may perhaps be as¬ 
cribed to its being imperfectly dried. 

In the table containing the results of Vanque- 
lin’s analyses of wheat flours, the proportions 
of gluten are generally much lower than those 
obtained by Davy. Thus, in common French 
flour, the gluten is 10.96 percent.; flour of hard 
Odessa wheat, 14.53 per cent.; flour from the 
bakers of Paris, 10.20 per cent. 

Boussingault, adopting the plan of determin¬ 
ing the amount of azotized principles by imme¬ 
diate ultimate analysis, has obtained a larger 
per centage of the nutritive principle than eith¬ 
er of the above named chemists. Thus he states 
that the hard African wheat contains of gluten 
and albumen, 26. 50 per cent.; Sicilian wheat, 
24. 30 per cent.; Dantzic wheat, 22. 70 per cent. 
He gives reasons which, to a certain extent, 
account for the larger quantity of azotized 
principles which he found in the samples of flour, 


198 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


and adds, 4i that the varieties of wheat, the fiour 
of which was analyzed, were all grown in the 
rich soil of the garden, a circumstance which, 
as Hermbstadt has shown, exerts the most pow¬ 
erful influence in increasing the quantity of glu¬ 
ten in wheat.” 

Dr. Robert D. Thomson has also published 
the results of several analyses of wheat flour. 
The proportion of the nutritive principle was 
deduced from the quantity of ammonia formed 
from the azote contained in the sample. Ac¬ 
cording to this chemist, Canada flour contains 
13.81 per cent, of the nutritive principle, (glu¬ 
ten and * albumen ;) Lothian flour, 12.30 per 
cent.; United States flour, 11.37 per cent., and 
another sample of the same, 10.99 per cent. 

It is not easy to understand why Canadian 
flour should rank so much higher than that from 
the United States. The sample named Cana¬ 
dian flour in the table may have been, in fact, 
brought from this side of the line, for it is stated 

that our wheat is carried to Canada, there ground 
into flour, and taken to England under Canadian 
duty. One house at. Cleveland is said to have 
shipped, during the last summer and fall, 36,000 
bushels of wheat, which was ground at St. Cath¬ 
arines, on the Welland Canal, and sent to Lon¬ 
don under contract. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


199 


Mr. Mitchell, in his analyses of various Lon¬ 
don flours, obtained the following proportion of 
gluten, viz: in fine Flour, No. 1, 950 percent.; 
in No. 2, 11.40 per cent.; in second Flour, No. 
1, 8.50 per cent.; in No. 2, 7.70 per cent. 

After mature consideration, I determined to 
adopt the mode of analysis which shortly con¬ 
sists in separating the gluten by washing with 
cold water, and then subjecting the remaining 
constituents of the flour to other operations. I 
preferred this process, as being more easily exe¬ 
cuted, requiring less apparatus, and less skill 
and nicety of manipu'ation, than are demanded 
in the ultimate analysis. I have little doubt, 
moreover, that, for the practical purposes of this 
investigation, it is equally, if not more, accur¬ 
ate ; for, with all the improvements which have 
been made in the method of determining the 
amount of nitrogen in organic substances, it is 

not yet free from difficulties. 1 may also add, 
that the u timate analysis fails to give us any in¬ 
formation concerning the peculiar nature of the 
gluten—a point which is, perhaps, of as much 
consequence in settling the real value of flour as 
the amount of that principle. 

The different steps of the analyses have, in all 
cases, been conducted with as much uniformity 
as possible; one important object being to fur- 


200 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


nish a tabic of results which should, at least, 
show the relative value of the different samples 
subjected to trial. 

All the samples from abroad were received in 
tin boxes or glass bottles carefully closed, so as 
to prevent the access of external air. Thus, 
whether damaged or not, they were probably 
in nearly the same condition when they came 
into my hands as they were when put up. 

In proceeding with the analysis, 100 grains of 
the flour were put into a small Berlin ware cap¬ 
sule, which had been previously counterpoised 
in a delicate balance. The capsule, with its con¬ 
tents, was then placed in a water bath drying 
oven, and subjected to a heat of about 212° Fah¬ 
renheit, for from three to six or seven hours, or 
until after rapid weighing there was found to be 
no farther diminution of weight. The propor 
lion of water in the sample was thus determined 
by the weight required again to balance the cap¬ 
sule and its contents. 

A weighed portion of the flour, usually 100 
grains, was next carefully kneaded into stiff paste 
or dough by the cautious addition of pure wa¬ 
ter and the dough thus formed allowed to re¬ 
main in the cup for a few minutes. A fine linen 
cloth was stretched over the top of a bolting 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


201 


cloth sieve, and this again placed in a large Ber¬ 
lin ware dish. The dough was now washed on 
the hand over the sieve and cloth with a small 
stream of water, and gently kneaded, from time 
to time, until all the starchy particles and the 
soluble matters were removed. The tough glu¬ 
ten was washed until the water ceased to be¬ 
come milky, and after being carefully pressed 
out by the fingers, was subjected to the heat 
of a water-bath until perfectly dry, an operation 
which sometimes occupied 10 or 12 hours. It 
was then weighed warm and the amount noted. 

A sufliuient quantity of water was now poured 
upon the linen cloth to carry down the starch, 
while any small particles of gluten, washed off, 
during the operation, were added to the mass. 
In those cases where the flour contained any 
considerable proportion of bran, the latter sub¬ 
stance was found upon the linen cloth. 

The turbid washings were allowed to remain 
in the vessel until the whole of the starch was 
deposited. The supernatant liquor was then 
removed by a pipette, the starch again washed, 
and the wash water removed as before. The 
starch was now dried, subjected to the heat of 
the water-bath to expel a!l the water, and then 
quickly weighed. The clear liquor, removed 


202 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


from the starch, was evaporated at a boiling 
heat to near dryness, the complete dessication 
being effected at a temperature of 220 ° or 
230° Fahrenheit. In some cases, a few flocks, 
probably albumen, were observed floating in the 
iquid during the evaporation, but the quantity 
was usually so small that I did not attempt to 
separate it. The residuum thus obtained was 
principally a mixture of sweet and gummy mat¬ 
ter, with a small proportion of woody fibre and 
saline substances. As I ascertained that the 
sugar was the variety called glucose, or grape 
sugar,and the gummy constituent was supposed 
to be dextrine, I have placed all the results of 
the evaporation of the clear liquor under these 
two heads. 

I may remark, that the gluten obtained 
by this process contains a small quantity 
of an oily matter, which I supposed to be 
about equal to that of the albumen in the clear 
solution separated from the starch. The pro¬ 
portions of gluten given in the following analy¬ 
sis will, therefore, very nearly represent the 
amount of nutritive matters contained in the 
various samples. 

In most cases 1 carried out the analysis to the 

•/ 

end, obtaining and weighing the several sub- 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


203 


stances 5 but as the principal object was to de¬ 
termine the quantity and quality of gluten, the 
process was occasionally stopped at this point. 
In a few other instances the proportion of glu¬ 
ten, glucose and dextrine, were determined di¬ 
rectly, while the quantity of starch was estima¬ 
ted by difference. 

I : or convenience of reference, the analyses 
are arranged under the head of the several 
States from whence the specimens were obtain¬ 
ed. I regret that the number received from the 
south is so small, as I was very anxious to ex¬ 
hibit in one view the relative quantities of nu¬ 
tritive matter in the northern and southern 
flours. Should the investigation be continued, 
this point will claim my earliest attention. 

Several varieties of wheat sent from Amster¬ 
dam, have been analyzed, (after being ground 
to fine flour,) principally for the purpose of com¬ 
paring the results with those obtained from the 
samples from the United States. 


204 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


RESULTS OF THE ANALYSES 

KEGINNING WITH TIIE STATES SEPARATELY WHEKE THE VARIOUS 
SAMPLES OF WHEAT WAS GROWN AND MANUFACTURED. 


NEW JERSEY. 


Water 

12.75 

Gluten 

10.90 

Starch 

70.20 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 

6.15 


100.00 


NEW YORK. 


Water 

13.35 

Gluten 

12.82 

Starch 

68.00 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 

The analys e from pure Genesee Wheat. 

6.50 


100.67 


OHIO. 

Wheat Flour frcm Beaumont 
& Hollingsworth’s mills, 
Zanesville 

Water 12.85 

Gluten, 14.25 

Starch 67.0G 

Glucose, dextrine, <fec. 5.98 


100.14 


INDIANA. 

Wheat Flour from Forrests 
mills, Logansport. 


Water 

12.85 

Gluten 

11.90 

Starch 

67.00 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 

8.25 


100.00 

ILLINOIS - 


The wheat floured in Oswego. 

Water 

12.90 

Gluten 

11.25 

Starch 

66.00 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 

8.60 

Bran 

1.25 


100.00 


This sample is said to be of 
a dark colour and scarcely fit to 
pass inspection, but the gluten 
being rich, the chemist pro¬ 
nounced it, in proportion, as 
above the average of western 
samples. 


MICHIGAN 


Wheat flour from Bruce Mills. 
Water 13.20 

Gluten 11.85 

Starch G 5.60 

Glucose, dextrine,&c. 8.60 
Bran .45 


Wheat flour from Monroe,Mich 
Water 13 .10 

Gluten 10.40 

Starch, Glucose, dex- 
trine, 76.30 

Bran .20 1 


99.70 


100.00 



















TIIE AMERICAN MILLER 


205 


This, I consider about the average of wheat grown in the 
State of Michigan of all samples, except Mediterranean wheat, 
which appears to exceed all others in superior richness of glu- 
tenous substance, generally weighing from 62 lbs. to 67 lbs. 
per measured bushel, and entirely resembling the sample ot 
Russian wheat called Kubanka, and imported by Russia from 
the Mediterranean. It grows well in Michigan, but is rot 
much liked by our merchant millers, from the fact of its pos¬ 
sessing less starch than other samples of wneat, and in per¬ 
spective view the flour does not show that white and delicate 
appearance that Michigan flour is so noted for. But in the 
loaf it is very superior—the bread being very rich and moist 
from the greater quantity of gluten and less quantity of water 
than in other samples. 

Analysis of Mediterranean Wheat grown in Michigan: 


Water ... 

- 11.54 

Gluten - 

16.24 

Starch ... 

- 56.90 

Glucose, dextrine, <fcc. 

10.24 

Bran 

•5.08 


100.00 


Its berry is in colour a dark reddish cast, and very large in 
size and of great length ; for family flour it is superior to any 
other. It is also of a very hard nature and requires to be 
ground very closely and passed through a very fine bolt. 

THE AUTHOR. 


WISCONSIN. 

Flour from Wisconsin Wheat 
manufactured there. 
Water 13.80 

Gluten 10.85 

Starch 67.00 

Glucose, & dextrine 8.33 


GEORGIA. 

Wheat from Floyd county, Georgia 

Water 11.75 

Gluten 14.36 

Starch 68.93 

Glucose, dextrine 4.96 
100.00 


99.98 









206 


TIIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


The advantages to he derived from from this able and scien¬ 
tific analysis, are of the utmost importance to the miller and 
all dealers in breadstuff's, and shows at a glance the component 
substances, as well as the physical nature, of this great staple 
of domestic consumption. Wheat Flour, not inappropriately 
called the ‘ staff of life.” " 

From the quantity of water which we are shown it contains, 
we must conclude on the necessity there is for extracting it from 
the grain, for its preservation. The use of the kiln for drying 
all kinds of grain before ground, cannot be too highly recom¬ 
mended, both for the preservation of the flour or meal, as well 
as a preventive from insects called weevil, which abound in 
all warm climates. the author. 


t 

A TABLE RECKONING THE PRICE OF WHEAT 

From Fifty Cents to One Dollar per bushel. 


For the convenience of millers, we subjoin the following 
tables. The price will be found at the top of the page, 
and in the columns headed “value of bushels” and “value of 
pounds,” and directly opposite the number of bushels and 
pounds in the left hand column, will be found the value 
in dollars, cents and mills of 1 bushel or 1 pound to 100 
bushel or 100 pounds. 




THE AMERICAN MILLER 


207 


r 


P 2 

P c 

D- C 

•a c- 

b tr 
n.re 

* r 

Wn 

P 

V: 

bus 

eat at 50 cts 
er bushel. 

Wheat at 51 
per bushel 

cts 

Wheat at 52 cts 
per bushel 

Wheat at 53 ct? 
per bushel 

ilue 

'h els | 

Value 

lbs. 

Value 

bushels 

Value 

lbs. 

Value 

bushels 

value 

lbs. 

Value 

bushels 

value 

lbs. 


$ 

cts. 

«. ts. 

m 

$ 

cts. 

cts. 

m 

$ 

cts. 

cts. 

in 

$ 

cts. 

cts. 

m 

1 


50 

0 

8 


51 

0 

9 


52 

0 

9 


53 


9 

2 

1 

00 

1 

7 

1 

02 

1 

7 

1 

04 

1 

7 

1 

06 

1 

8 

3 

1 

50 

2 

5 

1 

53 

2 

G 

1 

5G 

o 

MJ 

G 

1 

59 

2 

7 

4 

2 

00 

3 

3 

2 

04 

3 

4 

2 

08 

3 

5 

2 

12 

3 

5 

5 

2 

50 

4 

2 

o 

55 

4 

3 

2 

GO 

4 

3 

2 

6G 

4 

4 

0 

3 

00 

5 

0 

3 

0G 

5 

1 

3 

12 

5 

<> 

3 

19 

5 

O 

O 

7 

3 

50 

5 

8 

3 

57 

G 

0 

3 

05 

G 

1 

3 

72 

6 

2 

8 

4 

00 

G 

*7 

4 

08 

G 

8 

4 

17 

G 

9 

4 

25 

7 

1 

3 

4 

50 

7 

5 

4 

59 

7 

7 

4 

G9 

7 

8 

4 

78 

8 

0 

10 

5 

00 

8 

3 

5 

10 

8 

5 

5 

21 

8 

7 

5 

31 

8 

9 

11 

5 

50 

9 

2 

5 

G1 

9 

4 

5 

73 

9 

5 

5 

84 

9 

N 

i 

12 

G 

00 

10 

0 

G 

12 

10 

o 

G 

25 

10 

4 

G 

37 

10 

6 

13 

G 

50 

10 

8 

G 

G4 

1 l 

1 

i 

6 

77 

11 

3 

G 

91 

1 1 

5 

14 

7 

00 

11 

H 

i 

7 

15 

11 

9 

7 

29 

12 

2 

7 

44 

12 

4 

15 

7 

50 

12 

5 

7 

GG 

12 

8 

7 

81 

13 

0 

7 

97 

13 

O 

o 

1C 

8 

00 

13 

o 

O 

8 

17 

13 

G 

8 

33 

13 

9 

8 

50 

14 

2 

17 

8 

50 

14 

2 

8 

08 

14 

5 

8 

85 

14 

8 

9 

03 

15 

1 

18 

9 

00 

15 

0 

9 

19 

15 

3 

9 

37 

1 5 

G 

9 

56 

15 

9 

19 

9 

50 

15 

8 

9 

70 

1G 

2 

9 

90 

1G 

o 

10 

09 

16 

8 

20 

10 

00 

1G 

H 

i 

10 

21 

17 

0 

10 

42 

17 

4 

10 

62 

17 


21 

10 

50 

17 

5 

10 

72 

17 

9 

10 

94 

18 

2 

11 

16 

18 

6 

22 

11 

00 

18 

3 

11 

23 

18 

7 

11 

4G 

19 

1 

11 

G9 

19 

5 

23 

11 

50 

19 

2 

11 

74 

19 

G 

11 

98 

20 

0 

12 

22 

20 

4 

24 

12 

00 

20 

0 

12 

25 

20 

4 

12 

50 

20 

8 

12 

75 

21 

2 

25 

12 

50 

20 

8 

12 

7G 

21 

3 

13 

02 

21 

7 

13 

28 

22 

1 

2G 

13 

00 

21 

7 

13 

27 

22 

1 

13 

54 

22 

G 

13 

81 

23 

0 

27 

13 

50 

22 

5 

13 

78 

23 

0 

14 

0G 

23 

4 

14 

34 

23 

9 

28 

14 

00 

23 

3 

14 

29 

23 

S 

14 

58 

24 

3 

14 

87 

24 

8 

29 

14 

50 

24 

2 

14 

80 

24 

7 

15 

10 

25 

o 

15 

41 

25 

7 

30 

15 

00 

25 

0 

15 

31 

25 

5 

15 

G 2 

26 

0 

15 

94 

26 

6 

40 

20 

00 

33 

3 

20 

41 

34 

0 

20 

83 

34 

7 

21 

25 

35 

4 

50 

25 

00 

41 

7 

25 

51 

•*2 

5 

26 

04 

43 

4 

26 

56 

44 

3 

100 

50 

00 

83 

4 

5 1 

02 

85 

0 

52 

08 

80 

8 

53 

12 

88 

0 

























































THE AMERICAN MILLER 


208 


*1 V) 

11 

00 g 

5a 

S* a 

Wheat at 54 cts. 
per bushel. 

Wheat at 55 cts. 
per bushel. 

Wheat at 56 cts 
per bushel. 

Wheat at 57 eta 
per bushel. 

Value 

bushels. 

Value 

lbs. 

Value 

bushels. 

V alue 
lbs. 

Value 

bushels. 

Value 

lbs. 

Value 

bushels. 

V aluo 
lbs. 


$ cts. 

cts. 

ml $ cts. 

cts. 

m 

| $ cts. 

jets. 

ml $ cts. 

cts. 

m 

l 


54 


9 


55 


9 


56 

1 

9 


57 

1 


2 

1 

08 

1 

8 

1 

10 

1 

8 

1 

12 

1 

9 

1 

15 

1 

9 

3 

1 

62 

2 

7 

1 

66 

2 

8 

1 

69 

2 

8 

1 

72 

2 

9 

4 

2 

17 

3 

6 

2 

21 

3 

t 

2 

25 

3 

7 

2 

29 

3 

8 

5 

2 

71 

4 

5 

2 

76 

4 

6 

2 

81 

4 

7 

2 

86 

4 

8 

6 

3 

25 

5 

4 

3 

31 

5 

5 

3 

37 

5 

6 

3 

44 

5 

7 

7 

3 

79 

6 

3 

3 

86 

6 

4 

3 

94 

6 

6 

4 

01 

6 

/ 

8 

4 

33 

7 

2 

4 

42 

7 

4 

4 

50 

7 

5 

4 

58 

7 

6 

9 

4 

87 

8 

1 

4 

97 

8 

3 

5 

06 

8 

4 

5 

16 

8 

6 

10 

5 

42 

9 

0 

5 

52 

9 

2 

5 

62 

9 

4 

5 

73 

9 

5 

11 

5 

96 

9 

9 

G 

07 

10 

1 

6 

19 

10 

3 

6 

30 

10 

6 

12 

6 

50 

10 

8 

6 

62 

11 

0 

6 

75 

11 

2 

6 

87 

11 

5 

13 

7 

04 

11 

7 

7 

IS 

12 

0 

7 

31 

12 

2 

7 

45 

12 

4 

14 

7 

58 

12 

6 

7 

73 

12 

9 

7 

87 

13 

1 

8 

02 

13 

4 

15 

8 

12 

13 

5 

8 

28 

13 

8 

8 

44 

14 

1 

8 

59 

14 

3 

16 

8 

67 

14 

4 

8 

83 

14 

i 

9 

00 

15 

0 

9 

17 

15 

3 

17 

9 

21 

15 

3 

9 

39 

15 

6 

9 

56 

15 

9 

9 

74 

16 

2 

18 

9 

75 

16 

2 

9 

94 

16 

6 

10 

12 

16 

9 

10 

31 

17 

2 

19 

10 

29 

17 

2 

10 

49 

17 

5 

10 

69 

17 

8 

10 

8b 

18 

1 

20 

10 

CO 

18 

1 

11 

04 

18 

4 

11 

23 

18 

7 

1 1 

46 

19 

1 

21 

11 

37 

19 

0 

11 

59 

19 

3 

11 

81 

19 

7 

12 

03 

20 

1 

22 

11 

92 

19 

9 

12 

15 

20 

2 

12 

3 i 

20 

6 

12 

60 

21 

0 

23 

12 

46 

20 

8 

12 

70 

21 

2 

12 

94 

21 

6 

13 

18 

22 

0 

24 

13 

00 

21 

7 

13 

25 

22 

1 

13 

59 

22 

5 

13 

75 

22 

9 

25 

13 

51 

22 

6 

13 

80 

23 

0 

14 

06 

23 

4 

14 

32 

23 

9 

26 

14 

08 

23 

5 

14 

35 

23 

9 

14 

62 

24 

4 

14 

90 

24 

8 

27 

14 

62 

24 

4 

14 

91 

24 

8 

15 

] 9 

25 

O 

O 

15 

47 

25 

8 

28 

15 

17 

25 

« 

3 

15 

46 

-5 

8 

15 

75 

26 

2 

16 

01 

26 

7 

29 

15 

71 

26 

2 

16 

01 

26 

7 

16 

3l l 

27 

2 

16 

61 

27 

7 

30 

16 

25 

27 

1 

16 

58 

27 

6 

16 

87 

28 

1 

17 

19 

28 

0 

40 

21 

67 

36 

1 

22 

08 

36 

8 

22 

50 

37 

5 

22 

92 

38 

2 

50 

27 

OS 

43 

1 

27 

60 

46 

0 

28 

12 

46 

9 

28 

65 

47 

7 

100 

34 

16, 

90 

2 

55 

20 

92 

0 

56 

24 

93 

8 

57 

29 

95 

7 






















































THE AMERICAN MILLER. 209 

f 


j.\o bushels 

).i. d pounds. 

Wheat at 58 cts 
per bushel. 

Wheat at 59 cts 
per bushel 

Wheat at 60 ctsj Wheat at 61 cts 
per bushel | per bushel 

Value 

bushels 

Value 

lbs. 

Value 

bushels 

V alue 
lbs. 

Value 

bushels 

value 

lbs. 

Value 

bushels 

value 

lbs. 


$ 

cts. 

t. ts. 

ra 

$ 

cts. 

cts. 

m 

'$ 

cts 

* 

cts. 

m 

$ 

cts. 

cts. 11 ) 

1 


58 

1 



59 

1 



60 

1 



G1 

1 

2 

1 

17 

1 

9 

1 

19 

2 


1 

21 

2 


1 

23 

2 

3 

1 

75 

2 

9 

1 

78 

3 


1 

81 

3 


1 

84 

3 1 

4 

2 

33 

o 

O 

9 

2 

57 

4 


2 

42 

4 


2 

46 

4 1 

5 

2 

92 

4 

9 

2 

97 

4 

9 

3 

02 

5 


3 

07 

5 1 

G 

3 

50 

5 

8 

3 

5G 

5 

9 

3 

G2 

6 


3 

G9 

G 1 

7 

4 

08 

6 

8 

4 

1G 

G 

9 

4 

23 

7 


4 

30 

7 2- 

8 

4 

G7 

7 

8 

4 

75 

7 

9 

4 

83 

8 

1 

4 

92 

8 2 

9 

5 

25 

8 

7 

5 

34 

8 

9 

5 

44 

9 

I 

5 

53 

9 2 

10 

5 

83 

9 

7 

5 

94 

9 

9 

G 

04 

10 

1 

G 

15 

10 2 

11 

6 

42 

10 

7 

G 

53 

10 

9 

6 

65 

11 

1 

G 

76 

11 3 

12 

7 

00 

11 

7 

7 

12 

11 

9 

7 

25 

12 

1 

7 

37 

12 3 

13 

7 

58 

12 

G 

7 

72 

12 

9 

7 

85 

13 

1 

7 

99 

13 3 

14 

8 

17 

13 

G 

8 

31 

13 

9 

8 

4G 

14 

1 

8 

GO 

14 3 

15 

8 

75 

14 

G 

8 

91 

14 

8 

9 

06 

15 

1 

9 

22 

15 4 

1G 

9 

33 

15 

6 

9 

50 

15 

8 

o 

67 

16 

1 

9 

83 

1G 4 

17 

9 

92 

1G 

5 

10 

09 

1G 

8 

10 

27 

17 

1 

10 

45 

17 4 

18 10 

50 

17 

5 

10 

G9 

17 

8 

10 

87 

18 

1 

11 

06 

18 4 

19 

11 

08 

ie 

5 

1 L 

28 

18 

8 

11 

48 

19 

1 

1 l 

68 

19 5 

20 

1 1 

G7 

19 

4 

11 

87 

19 

8 

12 

08 

20 

1 

12 

29 

20 5 

21 

12 

25 

20 

4 

12 

47 

20 

8 

12 

G9 

21 

1 

12 

91 

21 5 

22 

12 

83 

21 

4 

13 

0G 

21 

8 

13 

29 

22 

2 

13 

52 

22 5 

23 

13 

42 

22 

4 

13 

GG 

22 

8 

13 

90 

23 

2 

14 

14 

23 G 

24 

14 

00 

23 

o 

O 

14 

25 

23 

7 

14 

50 

24 

2 

14 

75 

24 6 

25 

14 

58 

24 

3 

14 

84 

24 

7 

15 

10 

25 

2 

15 

3G 

25 6 

2G 

15 

17 

25 

3 

15 

44 

25 

7 

15 

71 

26 

6) 

15 

98 

26 e 

27 

15 

75 

2G 

2 

1G 

03 

2G 

7 

16 

31 

27 

2 

1G 

59 

27 7 

28 

1G 

33 

27 

2 

1G 

G2 

27 

7 

1G 

92 

28 

2 

17 

21 

28 7 

29 

1G 

92 

28 

2 

17 

22 

28 

h* 

i 

17 

52 

29 

2 

17 

82 

29 7 

30 

17 

50 

29 

2 

17 

81 

29 

7 

18 

12 

30 

2 

18 

44 

30 7 

40 

23 

33 

38 

o 

23 

H — 

io ; 

39 

G 

24 

17 

40 

3 

24 

58 

41 0 

50 

29 

17 

48 

o 

29 

69 

t9 

5 

30 

21 

o0 

3 30 

73 

51 2 

100 

58 

33 

97 

2 1 

59 

37 

99 

0 

60 

42 

100 0,61 

46 

102 4 







18 








• 































































shel«! 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


210 


Wheat at (J2£ets. 
per bushel 

Wheat at 04 cts. 
per bushel. 

Wheat at 65 cts 
per bushel. 

Wheat at 66 cts 
per bushel. 

Value 

bushels. 

Value 

lbs. 

Value | Value 
bushels J lbs. 

Value 

bushels. 

Value 

lbs. 

Value 

bushels. 

Value 

lbs. 



$ 

cts. 

cts. 

in] $ 

cts. 

cts. 

m| $ 

cts. 

lets. 

m| $ 

cts. 

cts. 

m 

1 


62 

1 



64 

1 

1 


65 

1 

1 


66 

1 

1 

2 

1 

25 

2 

1 

1 

28 

2 

1 

1 

29 

2 

2 

1 

31 

2 

2 

3 

1 

87 

3 

1 

1 

91 

3 

0 

w 

1 

94 

3 

2 

1 

97 

3 

3 

4 

2 

50 

4 

2 

2 

54 

4 

2 

2 

58 

4 

2 

2 

62 

4 

4 

5 

3 

12 

5 

2 

3 

18 

5 

3 

3 

23 

5 

4 

3 

28 

5 

5 

6 

3 

75 

6 

2 

3 

81 

6 

4 

3 

87 

6 

5 

3 

94 

6 

6 

. 7 

4 

37 

7 

3 

4 

45 

7 

4 

4 

52 

7 

5 

4 

59 

7 

7 

0 

5 

00 

8 

3 

5 

08 

8 

5 

5 

17 

8 

6 

5 

25 

8 

7 

9 

5 

62 

9 

4 

5 

72 

9 

5 

5 

81 

9 

7 

5 

91 

9 

8 

10 

6 

25 

10 

4 

6 

35 

10 

6 

6 

46 

10 

8 

6 

56 

10 

9 

11 

6 

87 

11 

5 

6 

99 

11 

6 

7 

10 

11 

8 

7 

22 

12 

0 

12 

7 

50 

12 

5 

7 

62 

12 

7 

7 

75 

12 

9 

7 

87 

13 

1 

13 

8 

12 

13 

5 

8 

26 

13 

7 

8 

40 

14 

0 

8 

53 

14 

2 

14 

8 

75 

14 

6 

8 

90 

14 

8 

9 

04 

15 

1 

9 

19 

15 

3 

15 

9 

37 

15 

6 

9 

53 

15 

9 

9 

69 

16 

1 

9 

84 

16 

4 

16 

10 

oi> 

16 

7 

10 

17 

16 

9 

10 

33 

17 

2 

10 

50 

17 

5 

17 

10 

62 

17 

7 

10 

80 

18 

0 

10 

98 

18 

3 

11 

16 

18 

6 

18 

11 

25 

18 

7 

11 

44 

19 

1 

11 

62 

19 

4 

11 

81 

19 

7 

19 

11 

87 

19 

8 

12 

07 

20 

1 

12 

27 

20 

5 

12 

47 

20 

8 

20 

12 

50 

20 

8 

12 

71 

21 

2 

12 

92 

21 

5 

13 

12 

21 

9 

21 

13 

12 

21 

9 

13 

34 

22 

2 

13 

56 

22 

6 

13 

78 

23 

0 

22 

13 

75 

22 

9 

13 

98 

23 

3 

14 

21 

23 

7 

14 

44 

24 

1 

23 

14 

37 

24 

0 

14 

91 

24 

4 

14 

85 

24 

8 

15 

09 

25 

2 

24 

15 

00 

25 

0 

15 

25 

v: 5 

4 

15 

50 

25 

8 

15 

75 

26 

2 

25 

15 

62 

26 

0 

15 

89 

26 

5 

16 

15 

26 

9 

16 

41 

27 

3 

26 

16 

25 

27 

1 

16 

52] 

27 

5 

16 

79 

28 

0 

17 

06 

28 

4 

27 

16 

87 

28 

1 

17 

16 

28 

6 

17 

44 

29 

1 

17 

72 

29 

5 

28 

17 

50 

29 

2 

17 

79 

29 

r*r 

/ 

18 

08 

30 

1 

18 

37 

30 

6 

20 

18 

12 

39 

2 

18 

43 

30 

7 

18 

73 

31 

2 

19 

03 

31 

1 

30 

18 

75 

31 

2 

19 

06 

31 

8 

19 

37, 

32 

3 

19 

69 

32 

8 

40 

25 

00 

41 

7 

25 

42 

42 

4 

25 

83, 

43 

1 

26 

25 

43 

7 

50 

31 

25 

52 

1 

31 

77 

53 

0 

32 

29 

53 

8 

32 

81 

54 

7 

100 

62 

50; 104 

2| 

63 

54 

106 

0 

64 

58 

107 

6 

65 

62 

109 

4 






























































THE AMERICAN MILLER 


211 


No. bushels 
and pounds 

Wheat at 67 cts 
per bushel, 

Wheat at 6S cts 
per bushel. 

Wheat at 69 cts 
per bushel 

Wheat at 70 cts 
per bushel 

Value 

bushels. 

Value 

lbs. 

Value 

bushels. 

Value 

lbs. 

Value 

bushels 

Value 

lbs 

Value 

bushels 

V alue 
lbs 


$ cts. 

cts. m 

$ cts. 

cts. Ill 

$ cts. 1 

cts. 

m 

$ cts. 

cts. 

m 

1 


67 

1 

1 


68 

1 

1 


69 

1 

1 

70 

1 

2 

2 

1 

33 

2 

2 

1 

35 

2 

3 

1 

37 

2 

3 

1 40 

2 

3 

3 

2 

00 

3 

3 

2 

03 

3 

4 

2 

06 

3 

4 

2 091 

3 

5 

4 

2 

67 

4 

1 

2 

22 

4 

5 

2 

75 

4 

6 

2 79 

4 

7 

5 

3 

33 

5 

5 

3 

39 

5 

6 

3 

44 

5 

7 

3 49j 

5 

8 

C 

4 

00 

6 

7 

4 

06 

6 

8 

4 

12 

6 

9 

4 19 

7 

0 

7 

4 

67 

7 

8 

4 

74 

7 

9 

4 

81 

8 

0 

4 89 

8 

1 

8 

5 

33 

8 

9 

5 

42 

9 

o 

5 

50 

9 

2 

5 58 

9 

3 

0 

6 

00 

10 

0 

6 

09 

10 

2 

6 

19 

10 

3 

6 28 

10 

5 

10 

6 

67 

11 

1 

6 

77 

11 

3 

6 

87 

11 

5 

6 98 

11 

6 

11 

7 

33 

12 

2 

7 

45 

12 

4 

7 

56 

12 

6 

7 68 

12 

8 

12 

8 

00 

13 

3 

8 

12 

13 

5 

8 

25 

13 

7 

8 37 

14 

0 

13 

8 

67 

14 

4 

6 

80 

14 

7 

8 

94 

14 

9 

9 07 

15 

1 

14 

9 

33 

15 

6 

9 

48 

15 

8 

9 

62 

16 

o 

9 77 

16 

3- 

15 

10 

00 

16 

7 

10 

16 

16 

9 

10 

31 

17 

SI 

4* 

10 47 

17 

4 

16 

10 

67 

17 

8 

10 

83 

18 

1 

11 

00 

18 

3 

11 17 

18 

6 

17 

11 

33 

18 

9 

11 

51 

19 

2 

11 

69 

19 

5 

11 86 

19 

8 

18 

12 

00 

20 

0 

12 

19 

20 

3 

12 

37 

20 

6 

12 56 

20 

9 

19 

12 

67 

21 

•1 

12 

86 

21 

4 

13 

06 

21 

8 

13 26 

22 

1 

20 

13 

33 

22 

2 

13 

54 

22 

6 

13 

75 

22 

9 

13 96 

23 

3 

21 

14 

00 

23 

3 

14 

22 

23 

7 

14 

14 

24 

1 

14 66 

24 

1 

4 

2 2 

14 

67 

24 

4 

14 

90 

24 

8 

15 

Iz 

25 

2 

15 35 

25 

6 

23 

15 

33 

25 

6 

15 

57 

26 

0 

15 

81 

26 

4 

16 75 

26 

8 

24 

16 

00 

26 

7 

16 

25 

27 

1 

16 

50 

27 

5 

16 05 

27 

9 

25 

16 

67 

27 

8 

16 

93 

28 

2 

17 

19 

28 

6 

17 45 

29 

1 

36 

17 

33 

28 

9 

17 

60 

29 

3 

111 

87 

29 

8 

18 15 

30 

2 

27 

18 

00 

30 

0 

18 

28 

30 

5 

18 

56 

30 

9 

18 84 

3 L 

4 

28 

18 

67 

31 

1 

18 

96 

31 

6 

,19 

25 

32 

1 

19 54 

32 

6 

29 

19 

33 

32 

2 

19 

64 

32 

*•» 

119 

94 

33 

2 

20 24 

33 

7 

30 

20 

00 

33 

3 

20 

31 

33 

9 20 

62 

^ 34 

4 

20 94 

34 

9 

40 

26 

67 

44 

4 

27 

08 

45 

1 


50! 45 

8 

27 92 

46 

5 

50 

33 

33 

55 

6 

33 

85 

56 

4134 

37 

57 

3 

1 34 90 

58 

2 

100 

66 

67 

111 

3 

67 

71 

112 

8 

I'G 

75 

! 114 

t 

6 

| 69 80 

116 

4 













































































212 


TIIE AMERICAN MILI.ER. 


If 

“"3 C" 

o s 

~ tt. 

3 zr 
zl n 

* r 

W lie 

P 

Val 

bush 

at at 71 ctsjWheat at 72 cts 
er bushel j per bushel 

Wheat at '3 
per bushel 

cts 

10 

VV1 

r 

I Va 
| bus 

ieat ai 74 cts 
er bushel 

uo 

icls 

V due 
lbs 

Value 

bushels 

Value 

lbs 

Value 

bushels 

Vah 

lbs 

lIuc 

hels 

Value 

lbs 


|« 

(its lets 

in 

% 

cts lets 

m 

1* 

ctslcts 

m 

|$ 

ctslcts 

m 

l 

| 

71 

[ 1 

2 


72 

[ 1 

2 


73 

I 1 

2 


74 

1 i 

2 

2 

! 1 

42 

I 2 

4 

1 

44 

t 2 

4 

j 1 

46 

2 

4 

1 

48 

| 2 

5 

3 

2 

12 

3 

5 

2 

16 

3 

7 

1 2 

19 

3 

6 

! ‘2 

22 

I 3 

7 

4 

2 

83 

4 

i 

2 

87 

4 

8 

2 

92 

4 

9 

2 

96 

4 

9 

5 

3 

54 

5 

9 

3 

59 

6 

0 

3 

65 

o 

1 

3 

70 

o 

2 

5 

4 

25 

7 

1 

4 

31 

7 

2 

4 

37 

7 

3 

4 

44 

7 

4 

>— 

i 

4 

96 

8 

3 

5 

03 

8 

4 

6 

20 

8 

5 

5 

18 

8 

6 

8 

5 

67 

9 

4 

5 

75 

1 9 

6 

5 

38 

9 

7 

5 

92 

9 

9 

9 

6 

37 

10 

6 

! 6 

47 

10 

8 

6 

56 

i 10 

9 

6 

66 

11 

1 

10 

I 7 

08 

11 

8 

7 

19 

12 

0 

7 

29 

12 

2 

7 

40 

12 

3 

11 

7 

79 

13 

0 

7 

91 

13 

2 

8 

02 

13 

4 

8 

14 

13 

6 

12 

8 

50 

14 

2 

8 

62 

14 

4 

8 

65 

14 

6 

8 

87 

14 8 

13 

9 

21 

15 

3 

9 

34 

15 

6 

9 

38 

15 

8 

9 

61 

16 

0 

14 

9 

92 

16 

5 

10 

06 

16 

8 

10 

21 

17 

0 

10 

35 

17 

3 

15 

10 

62 

17 

/ 

10 

78 

18 

0 

10 

94 

18 

2 

11 

09 

18 

5 

16 

11 

33 

18 

9 

11 

50 

19 

o 

11 

67 

19 

4 

11 

83 

19 

i 

17 

12 

04 

20 

1 

12 

22 

20 

4 

12 

40 

20 

7 

12 

57 

O I 

0 

18 

12 

75 

21 

2 

12 

94 

21 

8 

13 

12 

21 

9 

13 

31 

22 

2 

19 

13 

46 

22 

4 

13 

66 

22 

8 

13 

85 

23 

1 

14 

05 

23 

4 

20 

14 

17 

23 

6 

14 

37 

24 

0 

14 

58 

24 

3 

14 

79 

24 

7 

21 

14 

8V 

24 

8 

15 

09 

25 

2 

15 

31 

25 

5 

1 5 

53 

25 

9 

22 

15 

58 

26 

0 

15 

81 

26 

3 

16 

<14 

26 

/ 

16 

27 

27 

1 

23 

16 

29 

27 

2 

16 

53 

27 

G l 

16 

77 

28 

0 

17 

01 

28 

4 

24 

17 

00 

28 

3 

17 

25 

28 

7j 

17 

50 

29 

2 

17 

75 

29 

6 

25 

17 

71 

29 

5 

17 

97 

29 

9! 

18 

23 

30 

4 

18 

75 

30 8 

26! 

18 

42 

30 

7 

18 

69 

31 

1 

18 

96 

31 

61 

19 

23 

32 

0 

271 

19 

12 

31 

9 

19 

41 

32 

3 

19 

69 

32 

8 19 

97 

33 

a 

28 j 

19 

83 

33 

1 

20 

12 

33 

5 

20 

42 

33 

0 20 

71 

34 

5 

OQ! 

w O | 

20 

54 

34 

2 

20 

84 

34 

7 

21 

15 

35 

2 

21 

45 

35 

7 

301 

21 

25 

35 

4 

21 

56 

25 

9 

21 

87 

30 

5 

22 

19 

37 

0 

40 

28 

33 

47 

2| 

23 

75 

47 

9 

29 

17 

48 

6 29 

58 

49 

3 

50 

35 

42 

59 

0 

35 

94 

*59 

9 

36 

46 

60 

8 i 

36 

98 

61 

6 

100 

70 

84 

118 

0 

71 

88 

119 

8 t 

72 

92 121 

6 

73 

96 

123 

3 

































































TIIE AMERICAN MILLER 


21 


£ ^ 
E. c 

c 

O C 

VVheat at 
per bu 

75 

shel 

its 

Wheal at 76 cts 
per bushel 

Wheat at 77 cls(Wh 
per bushel j p 

eat at 78 c 
•t. bushel 

:s 

c u 

Z nr 

Value 

Value 

V a 1 u e 

Value 

V alue 

Value 

Value 

Value 

E. 2, 
5T ‘7 

bushels 

lbs 

bushels 

lbs 

bushels 

lbs 


bushels 

Iba 



$ 

sts 

cts 

rt 

$ cts 

cts m 

$ 

jts 

cts 

ml 

$ 

Cts 

cts 

m 

i 


75 

1 

2 


76 

1 

2 


77 

1 

8 


78 

1 

3 

2 

1 

5u 

2 

0 

1 

52 

2 

5 

1 

54 

1 2 

6 

1 

56 

2 

C 

3j 2 

25 

3 

7 

2 

28 

3 

8 


31 

Q 

9 

2 

34 

3 

9 

4 

3 

00 

5 

o 

3 

04 

5 

1 

3 

08 5 

1 

3 

12 

5 

2 

5 

3 

75 

G 

o 

3 

80 

6 

3 

3 

85 

G 

4 

3 

9 i 

G 

5 

6 

4 

50 

7 

5 

4 

56 

7 

6 

4 

62 

hr 

1 . ' 

* 

4 

69 

7 

8 

7 

5 

25 

8 

7 

5 

32 

1 8 

9 

5 

40 

1 9 

0 

5 

47 

9 

i 

i 

8 

6 

00 

10 

o 

6 

08 

10 

1 

G 

17 14 

3 

6 

25 

10 

4 

9 

6 

75 

ii 

2 

G 

83 

1 11 

4 

G 

94 

1 11 

61 7 

03 

ii 

r* 

i 

10 

7 

50 

12 

5 

7 

GO 

1 12 

t 

7 

71 

1 12 

8| 7 

81 

13 

0 

11 

8 

25 

13 

7 

8 

36 

13 

9 

8 

48 

1 14 

1 

8 

59 

14 

3 

12 

9 

00 

15 

0 

9 

12 

15 

2 

9 

25 

15 

4 

9 

37 

15 

6 

13 

9 

75 

16 

2 

9 

89 

1G 

5 

10 

02 

! 16 

7)10 

1G 

16 

9 

14 

10 

50 

17 

5 

10 

65 

17 

7 

10 

79 

18 

0|10 

94 

18 

2 

15 

11 

25 

18 

' 

11 

41 

19 

0 

11 

56 

19 

3|11 

72 

19 

5 

16 

12 

00 

20 

0 

12 

17 

20 

3 

12 

33 

20 

6)12 

50 

20 

8 

1? 

12 

75 

21 

2 

12 

93 

21 

5 

13 

10 

21 

8 

13 

28 

22 

1 

18 

13 

50 

22 

5 

13 

09 

22 

8 

13 

87 

23 

1 

14 

0G 

23 

4 

19 

14 

25 

23 

7 

14 

45 

24 

1 

11 

65 

24 

4 

14 

84 

24 

7 

20 

15 

00 

25 

o 

15 

21 

25 

3 

15 

42 

25 

7 

15 

62 

26 

0 

21 

15 

75 

2G 

2 

15 

97 

26 

6 

16 

19 

27 

Oj 16 

41 

27 

3 

22 

16 

50 

27 

5 

16 

73 

27 

9 

1G 

96 

28 

3 17 

19 

28 

6 

23 

17 

25| 

28 

7 

17 

49 

29 

1 

17 

73 

29 

5 

17 

97 

29 

9 

24 

18 

ool 

30 

v 

18 

25 

30 

4 

18 

50 

30 

8 

1* 

75 

31 

2 

25 

18 

751 

31 

2, 

19 

01 

31 

7 

19 

27 

32 

1) 

19 

53 

32 

6 

26 

19 

501 

32 

5| 

19 

77 

3.8 

0 

20 

04 

33 

4)20 

31 

33 

a 

271 

20 

•>5| 

33 

7| 

20 

53 

34 

2 

20 

81 

34 

7 21 

09 

3,5 

2 

28 

21 

ool 

35 

o| 

21 

29 

35 

5) 

21 

58, 

36 

0| 

21 

87 

36 

5. 

29j 

21 

^ r I 

'5 

36 

2 1 

22 

05 

36 

8 ! 

22 

35 

37 

3 

22 

GG 

37 

8 

30 j 

22 

50j 

37 

5| 

22 

81 

38 

o| 

23 

12| 

38 

5 

23 

44 

39 

1 

40 j 

30 

ooj 

50 

"l 

30 

42 

50 

7 

30 

83 

51 

4)31 

25 

52 

1 

50) 

37 

50) 

62 

5 

38 

0 2 

63 

4) 

38 

54, 

64 

2 39 061 

65 

1 

ICJUj 

75 

00)125 0| 

76 

04 

126 

8! 

77 

08 

128 

41 

1 

78 

121130 

j 

% 


18* 





































THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


11 


2u ? 

■O g* 

2 m 

1®. 

M 00 

Wheat at 79cts. Wheat at 80cts Wheat at 8lets 
per bushel. * per bushel. ! per bushel. 

Wheat at 82cta 
per bushel. 

Value 

3 us h’ Is 

Value | 
lbs. i 

V ilue 
bush’ls 

Value i 
lbs. 1 

Value 

jush’ls 

Value 

lbs. 

Value I 
bush’ls' 

Value 

lbs. 

| 

$ cts 

cts. 

m 

8 cts 

cts. 

mi 

$ 

cts 

cts. 

m| 

'8 

cts 

cts. 

m 

i 


79 

1 

3 


80 

1 

3 1 


81! 

1 

4 ' 


82 

1 

4 

‘) 

/w 

l 

58 

o 

/W 

0 

1 

60 

2 

7 1 

1 

62 

2 

7 

1 

65 

2 

7 

.3 

9 

37 

4 

0 

2 

41 

4 

0 

<) 

44 

4 

1 

4) 

/■W 

47 

4 

1 

4 

3 

17 

5 

3 

3 

21 

5 

3 I 

3 

25 

p* 

0 

4 

3 

29 

5 

5 

5 

3 

96 

6 

6 

4 

01 

6 

7 I 

4 

06 

6 

8 

4 

11 

6 

9 

0 

4 

75 

7 

9 

4 

81! 

8 

0 

4 

87 

8 

1 

4 

94 

8 

*+ 

0 

5 

54 

9 

o 

/W 

5 

61 i 

9 

4 

5 

69 

9 

0 

5 

76 

9 

6 

8 

6 

33 

10 

6 

6 

42 

10 

7 

6 

59 

19 

8 

6 

58 

11 

0 

9 

** 

/ 

12 

11 

9 j 

/ 

22 

12 

o| 

7 

31 

12 

2 

7 

41 

12 

3 

10 

7 

92 

13 

o 

8 

02 

13 

4! 

8 

12 

13 

5 I 

8 

23 

13 

7 

11 

8 

71 

14 

5 

8 

82 

14 

7 

8 

94i 

14 

9 

9 

05* 

15 

1 

12 

9 

50 

15 

8 

9 

62 

16 

o 

9 

75 

16 

9 

/W 

9 

87 

16 

5 

33 

10 

29 

17 


10 

43 

17 

4 

10 

56 

17 

6 

10 

70 

17 

8 

1411 

08 

18 

5 

11 

23 

18 

7 

11 

37 

19 

0 

11 

52 

19 

9 

1511 

87 

19 

8 

12 

03 

20 

1 

12 

19 

20 

3 

12 

34 

20 

6 

16 12 

97 

21 

1 

12 

83 

21 

4 

13 

00 

21 

7 

13 

17 

21 

9 

1713 

46 

22 

4 

13 

64 

Ot) 

t 

13 

81 

23 

0 

13 

99 

23 

3 

18 14 

25 

23 

7 

1 i 4 

44 

24 

1 

14 

62 

24 

4 

14 

81 

24 

1 

19 

15 

04 

25 

1 

j 15 

24 

25 

4 

15 

44 

25 

7 

15 

64 

, * 2G 

1 

20 

15 

83 

26 

4 

16 

04 

26 

t 

16 

25 

27 

1 

16 

46 

27 

4 

21 

16 

62 

27 

7 

j 16 

84 

28 

1 

17 

06 

28 

4 

17 

28 

28 

S 

22 

17 

42 

29 

0 

17 

65 

29 

4 

17 

87 

| 29 

8 

18 

10 

30 

0 

f * 

>3 

18 

21 

30 

3 

18 

45 

30 

7 

18 

69 

31 

1 

18 

93 

31 

5 

2419 

00 

31 

7 

19 

25 32 

1 

19 

50 

32 

5 

19 

75 

32 

9 

25 

19 

79 

33 

0 20 

05 33 

4 

20 

31 

33 

6 

20 

57 

34 

a 

26,20 

58 

34 

3 

20 

85 34 

8 

21 

12 

35 

2 

21 

41 

35 

l 

*>7 

l 

121 

r - - 1 

37 

35 

6 

21 

66 36 

1 

21 

94 

36 

6 

22 

22 

37 

0 

2822 

17 

, 36 

9 

'22 

40 

; 37 

4 

22 

75 

37 

9 

23 

04 

38 

4 

29 22 

90 

38 

3 

23 

20 

; 38 

8 

23 

50 

39 

3 

23 

80 

39 

8 

31 

23 

75 

39 

6 

24 

oc 

40 

1 

24 

37 

40 

6 

24 

69 

41 


40 

131 

67 

52 

8 

32 

08 

53 

5 

32 

5C 

54 

0 

/W 

32 

92 

54 

14 

50 39 

58 

66 

0 

40 

10 

66 

8 

40 

62 

li 67 

*** 

i 

41 

15 

68 

6 

100179 

It 

122 

0 

Iso 

20 

1133 

i 

6 

81 

24 

135 

4 

,82 

30 [13.7 

2 






































HIE AMERICAN MILLER. 


215 


3 21 Wheat at 83cts Wheat at 84cts Wheat at 85cts'Wheat at86cts 

Q. ° 1 

*T3 O' 


o O 


cn 


2-5. 

cn to I 


Value | 
bush’ls' 


^alue 

Value 

Value 

j Val ue 

Value 

Value 

Value 

lbs. 

bush’ls 

lbs. 

i bush’ls 

lhs. 

bush’ls 

lbs. 



$ 

cts 

cts m. 

8 cts 

cts 

m. 

8 

cts 

cts 

in. 

8 cts 

cts 

m 

1 


83 

1 

4 


84 

1 

4 


85 

1 

4 


86 

1 

4 

2 

1 

67 

2 

8 

1 

69 

2 

8 

1 

71 

9 

/W 

8 

1 

73 

2 

9 

3 

9 

/w 

50 

4 

•2 

9 

/*W 

53 

4 

o 

/W 

o 

561 

4 

3 

2 

59 

4 

3 

• 4 

3 

33 

5 

6 

3 

37 

2 

6 

3 

.2 

5 

7 

3 

46 

5 

8 

5 

4 

17 

6 

9 

4 

22 

7 

0 

4 

27 

7 

1 

4 

321 

7 

O 

yw 

6 

5 

00 

8 

3 

rr 

O 

06 

8 

4 

o 

12 

8 

5 

p* 

9 

19 

8 

6 

p*.- 

/ 

5 

83 

9 

7 

5 

91 

9 

8 

5 

98 

10 

0 

6 

05 1 

10 

1 

8 

6 

67 

11 

1 

6 

75 

11 

o 

6 

83 

11 

4 

6 

92 

11 

9 

9 

7 

50 

12 

9 

7 

59 

12 

/ 

/ 

69 

12 

8 

7 

78 

13 

0 

IC 

8 

33 

13 

9 

8 

44 

14 

1 

8 

51 

14 

O 

/W 

8 

65 

14 

4 

IJ 

9 

17 

15 

3 

9 

28 

15 

5 

9 

40 

15 

7 

9 

51 

15 

9 

12 

10 

00 

16 

7 

10 

12 

16 

9 

10 

25 

17 

1 

10 

37 

17 

3 

13 

to 

83 

18 

1 

10 

97 

18 

3 

il 

10 

18 

5 [ 

l 

24 

18 

>■* 

/ 

14 

11 

67 

19 

4 

11 

81 

19 

7 

II 

96 

19 

9 

2 

10 

20 

O 

15 

12 

59 

20 

8 

12 

60 

21 

1 

12 

81 

21 

4 

2 

97 

21 

6 

Id 

13 

33 

22 

2 

13 

50 

22 

5 

13 

67 

22 

8 

3 

83 

23 

1 

17 

14 

17 

23 

6 

14 

34 

23 

9 

»4 

52 

24 

2 

t4 

70 

24 

5 

18 

15 

00 

25 

0 

15 

19 

25 

3 

15. 

37 

95 

6 

15 

56 

25 

9 

19 

15 

83 

26 

4 

16 

03 

26 

7 

16 

23 

27 

0 

16 

43 

97 

4 

20 

16 

67 

27 

8 

16 

87 

28 

1 

17 

08 

28 

5 

17 

29 

28 

8 

21 

17 

50 

29 

o 

/w 

17 

72 

29 

5 

17 

94 

29 

9 

18 

16 

30 

3 

22 

18 

33 

30 

6 

18 

56 

30 

9 

18 

79 

31 

3 

19 

02 

31 

4 

23 

19 

17 

31 

9 

19 

41 

32 

3 

19 

65 

32 

7 

19 

89 

33 

1 

24 

20 

00 

33 

3 

20 

25 

33 

4 

o a 

50 

34 

2 

20 

75 

34 

6 

25 

20 

83 

34 

7 

21 

09 

35 

2 

21 

35 

35 

6 

pi 

61 

36 

0 

2621 

67 

36 

1 

21 

94 

36 

6 

22 

21 

37 

0 

99 

48 

37 

9 

27 

•22 

50 

37 

5 

22 

78 

38 

(1 

13 

06 

38 

4 

23 

34 

38 

9 

28 

23 

33 

38 

9 

23 

62 

39 

4 

■3 

92 

39 

9 

24 

21 

40 

3 

2924 

17 

40 

3 

24 

47 

40 

6 

>4 

77 

41 

3 

25 

07 

41 

8 

31] 

25 

00 41 

7 

25 

31 

42 

2 

45 

62 

42 

4 

25 

94 

43 

O 

40 33 

33 

55 

6 

33 

75 

►j 56 

O 

** 

14 

17 

56 

9 

34 

58 

57 

6 

50141 

67 

69 

4 

42 

10 

> 70 

3 

42 

71 

71 

9 

43 

23 

72 

0 

100183 

34 

1 138 

8 

84 

38140 

6 

85 

42142 

4 

86 

40 

> 144 

s 

0 

























































216 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


0.9 
-o g* 

O 

I s- 

g.2. 

tc a. 

vv neai 
per bushel. 

vv near ai o^cis 
per bushel. 

vv neai at yucisi vv neat, 
per bushel. ' per bi 

u ai 

jshe 

Val 

lbs 

CIS 

. 

Value 

bu'h’ls 

Value 

lbs. 

Value 

bush’ls 

Value 

lbs. 

Value 

bush’ls 

Value 

lbs. 

Value , 
bush'lsl 

ae 


$ cts 

Cts Ill. 

$ 

cts 

cts m. 

$ cts 

cts 

m. 

$ cts 

cts m 

1 


87 

1 

5 


89 

1 

5 


90 

l 

5 


91 

1 

p* 

0 

2 

1 

75 

2 

6 

l 

77 

3 

0 

1 

79 

3 

0 

l 

8ll 

3 

0 

3 

2 

62 

4 

4 

0 

Ad 

6(5 

4 

4 

2 

69 

4 

5 

2 

72 1 

4 

5 

4 

3 

50 

5 

8 

3 

54 

5 

9 

3 

58 

6 

0 

3 

62 

6 

0 

o 

4 

37 

i 

3 

4 

43 

7 

4 

4 

48 

7 

5 

4 

53 

7 

6 

6 

5 

25 

8 

/ 

5 

51 

8 

9 

5 

37 

9 

0 

5 

44 

9 

1 

7 

6 

12 

10 

2 

6 

20 

10 

3 

6 

27 

10 

5 

6 

34 

10 

6 

8 

7 

00 

11 

7 

7 

08 

11 

8 

7 

17 

11 

9 

7 

25 

12 

1 

9 

7 

87 

13 

1 

7 

97 

13 

3 

8 

06 

13 

4 

8 

16 

13 

6 

10 

8 

75 

14 

6 

8 

85 

14 

8 

8 

96 

14 

9 

9 

06 

15 

1 

11 

9 

62 

16 

0 

9 

74 

16 

2 

9 

85 

16 

4 

9 

97 

16 

6 

12 10 

53 

17 

5 

10 

62 

17 

7 

10 

75 

17 

9 

10 

87 

18 

1 

13 

11 

37 

19 

0 

11 

5! 

19 

2 

11 

65 

19 

4 

11 

78 

19 

6 

14 

12 

25 

20 

4 

12 

50 

20 

7 

12 

54 

20 

9 

12 

69 

21 

1 

15 

13 

12 

21 

9 

13 

28 

22 

1 

13 

44 

! 22 

4 

13 

59 

22 

7 

16 

14 

00 

23 

3 

14 

17 

23 

6 

14 

33 

23 

9 

14 

50 

24 

2 

17 

14 

87 

24 

8 

15 

05 

25 

1 

15 

23 

25 

4 

15 

41 

25 

7 

18 

15 

75 

26 

2 

15 

94 

.26 

6 

16 

12 

26 

9 

16 

31 

27 

2 

19 

16 

62 

27 

7 

16 

82 

28 

0 

17 

02 

28 

4 

17 

22 

28 

7 

20 

17 

50 

29 

2 

17 

71 

29 

5 

17 

92 

29 

9 

18 

12 

33 

0 

21 

18 

37 

30 

6 

18 

59 

31 

0 

18 

81 

31 

4 

19 

03 

31 

7 

22 

19 

25 

32 

1 i 

19 

48 

32 

5 

19 

71 

32 

8 

19 

94 

33 

2 

23 

20 

12 

33 

5 

20 

36 

33 

9 

20 

60 

34 

3 

2 ) 

84 

34 

7 

2l! 

21 

00 

35 

0 

21 

25 

35 

4 

21 

50 

35 

8 

21 

75 

36 

2 

‘5 

21 

87 

36 

5 

22 

14 

36 

9 

99 

Ad a* 

4° 

37 

3 

12 

66 

37 

8 

2622 

75 

37 

9 

23 

02 

38 

4 

23 

29 

38 

8 

23 

56 

39 

3 

27 23 

62 

39 

4 

23 

91 

39 

8 

24' 

19 

4 ) 

3 

!4 

47 

43 

8 

2824 

50 

40 

8 

24 

79 

41 

3 

25 

08 

41 

8 

15 

37 

42 

3 

2925 

37 

42 

0 

68 

42 

8 

2 

98 

43 

3 

>6 

28 

43 

8 

30 26 

25 

43 

7 

26 

56 

44 

3 

26 

87 

44 

8 

17 

19 

45 

3 

40 35 

00 

58 

3 

35 

42 

59 

0 

35 

83 

59 

/ 

36 

25 

6) 

4 

50 43 

75 

72 

9 

44 

27 

73 

8 

44 

79 

74 

7 

45 

31 

75 

5 

100 87 

53 145 

i 

8 , 

88 

54 147 

6 

89 

59)149 

9 

90 

62 151 

9 




































TIIE AMERICAN MILLER 


217 


No.bushels 
and pounds 

Wheat at 92ctsj Wheat at 93cts 
per bushel. per bushel. 

W1 

r 

leat 
>er l 

ue 

h’ls 

at 94cts Wheat at 95cts 
mshel. • per bushel. 

V alue 
bush’ls 

Value I Value 
lbs. 'bush'ls 

Value IVal 
lbs. 'bus 

Value Value 
lbs. bush’ls 

Value 

lbs. 


8 

cts 

cts m. 

8 

cts 

cts Ill. 

8 

cts cts 

rn. 

8 

cts 

cts 

m 

1 


92 

1 

5 


93 

1 

2 


94 1 

6 


95 

1 

6 

2 

1 

83 

3 

1 

1 

85 

2 

4 

1 

87 

1 3 

1 

1 

90 

3 

2 

3 

2 

75 

4 

6 

2 

78 

3 

6 

2 

81 

4 

7 

2 

84 

4 

ry 

i 

4 

3 

67 

6 

1 

3 

71 

4 

8 

3 

75 

6 

2 

3 

79 

6 

3 

5 

4 

58 

7 

6 

4 

64 

6 

0 

4 

69 

, 7 

8 

4 

74 

7 

9 

6 

5 

50 

9 

2 

5 

56 

7 

2 

5 

62 

, 9 

4 

p* 

o 

69 

9 

o 

7 

6 

42 

10 

7 

6 

49 

8 

5 

6 

5. 

10 

9 

6 

64 

11 

1 

8 

7 

33 

12 

2 

7 

42 

9 

6 

7 

50 

11 

5 

7 

58 

12 

6 

9 

8 

25 

13 

7 

8 

34 

10 

8 

8 

44 

14 

1 

8 

53 

14 

2 

10 

9 

17 

15 

2 

9 

27 

12 

0 

9 

37 

15 

6 

9 

48 

15 

5 

. 11 

10 

08 

16 

8 

10 

20 

13 

2 

10 

31 

17 

2 

10 

43 

17 

4 

12 

1 1 

00 

! 18 

3 

11 

12 

14 

4 

1 1 

25 

18 

7 

1 1 

37 

19 

0 

13 

11 

92 

19 

9 

12 

05 

15 

7 

12 

19 

20 

3 

12 

32 

20 

5 

14 

12 

83 

21 

4 

12 

98 

17 

0 

13 

12 

21 

9 

13 

27 

22 

1 

15 

13 

75 

22 

9 

13 

91! 18 

1 

14 

06 

23 

4 

14 

22 

23 

7 

16 

14 

67 

24 

4 

14 

83 

.19 

2 

15 

00 

25 

0 

15 

17 

25 

3 

171 

15 

58 

26 

0 

15 

76 

20 

4 

15 

94 

26 

6 

16 

11 

26 

9 

18 

16 

50 

27 

5 

16 

69 

21 

6 

16 

87 

28 

1 

17 

C6 

28 

4 

• 19 17 

42 

29 

0 

17 

91 

22 

8 

17 

81 

29 

7 

18 

01 

30 

0 

20 

18 

33 

30 

6 

18 

54 

24 

0 

18 

75 

31 

2 

18 

96 

31 

6 

21 

19 

25 

32 

1 

19 

49 

25 

2 

19 

69 

32 

8 

19 

91 

33 

2 

22 20 

17 

33 

6 

20 

40 

26 

4 

20 

62 

34 

4 

20 

85 

34 

8 

2321 

08 

35 

1 

21 

32 

27 

6 

21 

56 

35 

9 1 

21 

80 

36 

3 

24 22 

00 

36 

7 

22 

25 

28 

8 

22 

50 

37 

5 

22 

75 

i 

37 

9 

25 22 

92 

38 

2 

23 

18 

39 

1 

23 

44 

39 

1 

23 

TO 

39 

5 

26 23 

83 

30 

7 

24 

10 

31 

4 

24 

37 

40 

6 

24 

65 

41 

1 

27 24 

75 

41 

2 

25 

03 

32 

7 

25 

31 

42 

2 

25 

59 

42 

7 

2-i 25 

67 

42 

8 

25 

96 

34 

0 

26 

25 

43 

7 

26 

54 

44 

2 

29 26 

58 

44 

3 

26 

89 

35 

2 

27 

39 

45 

3 

27 

49 

45 

8 

30 27 

50 

45 

8 

27 

81 

36 

5 28 

12 

45 

9 

28 

44 

47 

4 

40 36 

67 

61 

1 

37 

08 

48 

6 37 

50 

62 

5 37 

92 

63 

2 

50 45 

83 

76 

4 

46 

35 

60 

7 46 

87 

78 

1 47 

40 

79 

0 

100,91 

66 

152 

8 

92 

70 

121 

4 93 

74|i 56 

2 94 

80 

158 

0 











































1C 

Ff 

CL ? 

•a 

S| 

g.» 

X cc I 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

V 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

40 

50 

100 


THE AMERICAN MILLER 


it96ctS| Wheat at 97cts Wheat at98cts Wheat at99 cts 
Lishel. 


Ibs. 


cts m, 


1 

3 

4 
6 


6 

2 

8 

4 


8 0 
9 6 
11 2 
12 8 
14 4 
16 0 
17 
19 


6 

2 


27 
2S 

30 

31 
33 

35 

36 
3S 3 
39 9 
41 5 

43 

44 
46 


2 

7 

3 

9 

5 

1 

7 


1 

7 

3 


20 8 
22 4 

24 0 

25 6 


47 9 
63 9 
79 9 
159 8 


Value 1 
bush’ls' 

Value | 
lbs. ' 

Value 

bush’ls 

Value 1 
lbs. 1 

Value 

aush’ls 

Value 

lbs. 

9 

cts 

cts m.i 

$ cts 

cts 

m. 

$ 

cts 

cts m 


97 

1 

6 


98 

1 

6 


99 

1 

6 

l 

94 

3 

2 

1 

96 

3 

3 

1 

98 

3 

3 

2 

91 

4 

8 

2 

94 

4 

9 

2 

97 

4 

9 

3 

87 

6 

5 

3 

92 

6 

5 

3 

96 

6 

6 

4 

S4 

8 

1 

4 

90 

8 

2 

4 

95 

8 

2 

5 

81 

9 

7 

5 

S7 

9 

8 

5 

94 

9 

9 

6 

73 

11 

3 

6 

85 

11 

4 

6 

93 

11 

5 

7 

75 

12 

9 

7 

S3 

13 

1 

i 

92 

13 

2 

8 

72 

14 

5 

S 

SI 

14 

7 

8 

91 

14 

8 

9 

69 

16 

1 

9 

79 

16 

3 

9 

90 

16 

5 

10 

66 

17 

8 

10 

77 

18 

0 

10 

S9 

18 

1- 

11 

62 

19 

4 

11 

75 

19 

6 

11 

87 

19 

8 

12 

59 

21 

0 

12 

73 

21 

2 

12 

86 

21 

4 

13 

65 

*22 

6 

13 

71 

22 

8 

13 

85 

23 

1 

14 

53 

24 

2 

14 

69 

24 

5 

14 

84 

24 

7 

15 

50 

25 

8 

15 

67 

26 

1 

15 

83 

26 

4 

16 

47 

27 

4 

16 

65 

27 

7 

16 

82 

28 

0 

17 

44 

29 

1 

17 

62 

29 

4 

17 

81 

29 

i 

18 

41 

30 

7 

18 

60 

31 

0 

18 

80 

31 

3 

19 

37 

32 

3 

19 

58 

32 

6 

19 

79 

33 

0 

20 

34 

33 

9 

20 

56 

34 

3 

20 

78 

34 

6 

21 

31 

35 

5 

21 

54 

35 

9 

21 

77 

36 

3 

22 

28 

37 

1 

22 

52 

37 

5 

22 

76 

37 

9 

23 

25 

38 

7 

23 

50 

39 

2 

23 

75 

39 

6 

24 

22 

40 

4 

24 

48 

40 

8 

24 

74 

41 

2 

25 

19 

42 

0 

25 

46 

42 

4 

25 

73 

42 

9 

26 

16 

43 

6 

26 

44 

44 

1 

26 

72 

44 

5 

,27 

12 

45 

2 

27 

42 

45 

7 

27 

71 

46 

2 

28 

09 

46 

8 

28 

40 

47 

3 

28 

70 

47 

8 

29 

06 

48 

4 

29 

37 

49 

0 

29 

69 

49 

5 

38 

75 

64 

6 

39 

17 

65 

3 

39 

58 

66 

6 

48 

44 

80 

7 

48 

96 

81 

6 

49 

48 

82 

5 

96 

88 

161 

4 

97 

92 

163 

2 

98 

96] 

165 

0 













































THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


219 


STEAM AS APPLIED FOR PROPELLING MILLS. 


Steam as a power for milling purposes in lo¬ 
cations where fuel can be easily obtained, is 
quite as good as water, when constructed and 
arranged properly. The old method of building 
Steam Mills with single engines, is always at¬ 
tended with a good deal of difficulty, requiring 
very nice calculation in proportioi ing the mo¬ 
tion of the machinery, so as to do away with 
back-lashing, which is impossible, unless the ve¬ 
locity of the balance-wheel exceed that of the 
stone; which should be borne in mind by all 
millwrights who undertake to build mills with 
single engines. But modern improvement in the 
science of practical mechanics, has improved 
the steam mill, by the application of two engines 
instead of one. The engines are attached to 
the main shaft, working at right angles, which 
gives a very even steady power, and dispenses 
with the use of fly-wheels entirely. 

The following sized engines may be used in 
mills to drive two run of stones, viz: 

Size of cylinders, 10 inches bore,—length of 
stroke, 2 feet; to be supplied with steam from 



220 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


two boilers, double flues 40 inches in diameter, 
30 feet long. 

Boilers and engines of that size will drive two 
run of stones, with all necessary machinery for 
flouring and custom work. And a mill of that 
size, when properly constructed, with five cords 
of wood per twenty-four hours, will put up from 
one hundred to one hundred and thirty barrels 
of flour. 


ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SAW MILL, 

WITS5 A TAISLE 

FOR MEASURING SAW LOGS. 

The construction of the saw mill is something 
that requires improvement even in this day of 
mechanical progress. The old method of build¬ 
ing saw mills, is, to attach the water wheel and 
saw to the same shaft—that we consider wrong, 
for the following reasons : The power of the 
water is so great, it requires every part of all 
the connecting machinery to be bound very se¬ 
cure, which causes a stilfness which very mate¬ 
rially reduces the actual power when used in 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


oo I 

Aar .S/ i 

connection with a crank. As the power of the 
water is the same both off and on the center, 
producing an irregularity of motion, the momen¬ 
tum of which racks the frame of the mill, and 
occasions a great deal of trouble and time in 
extra repairs. To make this subject more plain, 
the weight of water, saw-sash, pitman and crank, 
cannot be equalized, as the length of the crank 
being the distance from the center, produces 
that irregularity of motion, which pertains to all 
crank motions. Saw mills of this description 
are generally driven by horizontal water wheels 
and are simple in their construction, but are less 
powerful than those mills geared by perpendicu¬ 
lar water wheels as follows: 

The first great advantage in gearing saw mills 
with perpendicular water wheels, is, you use the 
water on a wheel working on the principle of 
the lever of the second kind, (see, ‘Mechanic^,’ 
page 16,) the power being 3 to 1, and the saw 
being driven by a belt, takes away all that 
strain which destroys and racks the frame as 
all single geared mills. Also the gig-wheel is 
done away, as by a guage on the main gate, the 
carriage may be worked with ease, and a good 

deal of power saved thereby. 

19 



222 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


For a water power of seven feet head, the 
following described rules may be used, and a 
good strong mill obtained: Size of the frame, 
27 by 40—size of water wheel, 5 feet in diame¬ 
ter, driving a horizontal shaft, with bevil geer¬ 
ing 2 inches, l-4th pitch, driver 64 cogs, leader 
32—size of driving drum on said shaft, 8 feet 
in diameter, which drives the crank shaft by a 
pully 2 feet in diameter,—this pully should be 
made about 2 feet wide to allow room for the 
belt which drives the carriage by a drum of 5 
feet in diameter. The carriage is worked to the 
saw by an eccentric rod attached from the crank 
shaft which runs up to the feed hand and joins 
by an elbow. A fly wheel six feet in diameter 
is required, and bored^for the crank at any re¬ 
quired length, from 12 to 30 inches. 

This is the best possible mode of construct¬ 
ing the Saw Mill, and where a muley saw is used, 
is one of the best kind of mills. The size of the 
belting should be, when made of leather, 12 in¬ 
ches wide of good band leather doubled, sewed 
with horse hide dressed purposely, stitched 
three times. This belt if kept dry will last for 
many years. 


THE AMERICAN MILLER 


223 




CO 








© 







nt< 

CO 

Cl 

© 

Cl 

© 

o 

EC 05 

CO 

00 

Cl 

© 

rH 

© 

1 

1 —■! 

^t< 

00 

CO 

X- 

Cl 

© 

rn 

EO 05 


00 

CO 

x~* 

CM © 

© 


co 


HT 

EC 

EC 

o 

© 

x~* 

X- X" 

GO 

00 

© 

© 

© © 

rH 















rH rH 

rH 



rH 

rH 

CO 

h* 

EO 

© 

CO 05 

O 

rH 

CO 


EO © 

Ar— 



rH 

xc 

05 

CO 

X— 

rH 

EC 

05 CO 

00 

Cl 

© 

© 

00 

Cl 


<r: 

■HH 



EC 

EO 

© 

CO 

CO X" 

A— 

CO 

CO 

© 

o 

© 

rH 


Ci 

rH 

05 

X'- 

EC 

CO 

rH 

o 

X" EO 

CO 

rH 

© 

CO 

© 

CM 



GO 

rH 

eo 

05 

CO 

x~* 

o 

Hfl 00 

Cl 

CO 

© 

© 

i>- rH 

EO 


C*x 

CO 

J* 


TT 

EO 

1C 

© 

CO CO 

X- 

X" 

00 

00 

oo © 

© 



CO 

o 

CO 

CO 

05 

EO 

Cl 

oo nh 

Cl 

00 


© 

X— 00 

o 


'•V) 

© 

o 

CO 

X— 

o 


00 

rH lO 

05 

CM 

co 

© 

© x^ 



\»X 

CO 

-0 


o 

EC 

EC 

EC 

o CO 

CO 

A'- 

x— 

00 

OO 00 

© 



CM 

r 

rH 

EO 

05 

Ht< 

CO 

Cl o 

O 


© 

© 

[ 

4 

© 




i" 

rH 

HT 

X- 

rH 

Hh 

CO rH 

EC 

CO 

rH 

to 

CO Cl 

iO 

1 

iiY 

CO 

CO 




ic 

EC 

1C © 

CO 

CO 

X— 

i"« 

X" a> 

CO 


co 

CO 


»c 

CO 

05 

05 

o 

1-H CM 


EO 

co 

CO 

© © 

f , 



rH 

■'t 1 

a- 

o 

CO 

CO 

o 

CO CO 

05 

Cl 

EO 

CO 

rH IQ 

00 


l JX 

CO 

CO 

CO 

Ht< 



EC 

EC lO 

EC 

CO 

© 

© 

X— x~- 

r 


iO 

i" 

EC 


CO 

rH 

o 

05 

X~~ CO 

ic 


© 

rH 

© CO 

X"* 


/*\) 

00 

rH 


JO- 

o 

CO 

EO 

CO T—1 


A^ 

© 

© 

EO CO 

rH 


'C 

Cl 

CO 

CO 

CO 




Hjl EO 

EO 

EO 

© 

© 

© © 

X'- 



Cl 

00 

CO 

00 

CO 

05 

Htl 

05 tT 

o 

EO 

© 

1C 

I—I © 

rH 

I 

TJ* 

>a 

1" 

o 

Cl 

EC 

X’ 

o 

Cl EO 

00 

© 

© 

EO 

X- © 

© 

II . 

(M 

Cl 

Cl 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

cr 

Hfi ~V 


EC 

«o 

EO 

IQ © 

© 

to 


eo 

05 

CO 

© 

o 

CO 

Ah 

O 

x~ 

o 

ic 

CO 

Cl © 

© 

1 M 


CO 

EC 

CO 

o 

CO 

EO 

X- 

O Cl, 

TjH 

X s * 

© 

rH 

© 

00 

I *s 


Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

H 'rt l 


Ht< 


»o 

IQ EQ 

EC 

s 

A) 

© 

o 

rH 

Cl 

Cl 

CO 


1C o 

X'* 

00 

© 

© 

O rH 

Cl 

■« 

V# X 

o 

CO 

EC 

X- 

05 

rH 

CO 

EC X" 

05 

rH 

© 

© 

CO © 

CM 



Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

o 

CO 

CO 

CO CO 

cc 




HjH EQ 

EO 

'I a 

—t 

o 

05 

CO 

x~- 

o 

EC 

•'tf 

CO Cl 

rH 

o 

© 

00 

x~ © 

lO 



© CO 

Cl 

HfH 

© 

CO 

o 

Cl Tf* 

CO 

CO 

© 

rH 

© EQ 

Ah 

1 £ 


rH 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

CO 

CO CO 

CO 

CO 

© 




1 - 


>C 

Cl 

o 

X— 

EO 

Cl 

o 

X" EO 

Cl 

o 

03 

EC 

© © 

00 

« 


C- 

wv 

rH 

Cl 

-r 

o 

CO 

O rH 

CO 

1C 

© 

CO 

o c? 

© 

f>4 

a 


rH 

rH 

Cl 

CM 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl CO 

CO 

CO 

© 

CO 

Hft ^ 


1 s 


o 

EC 

o 

EC 

o 

1C 

o 

EO O 

EC O 

EC 

© 

EO © 

ia 

i •« 

'mr- •> 

»o 

© 

CO 

C5 

rH 

Cl 

-r 

ic x— 

CO 

o 

rH 

© 

rfi CO 

X'- 

0 

HH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

r—4 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl Cl 

Cl 

CO 

CO 

© 

© © 

© 


GO 

CO 

x- 

o 

CO 


o 

CO 

X- o 

CO 

x~-« 

© 

© 

X- © 

© 


CO 


© 

X- 

CO 

o 

rH 

C'i -c 

EO 

CO 

03 

© 

© Cl 

© 


t*H 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

© © 

© 



© 

i— 

05 

o 

Cl 

CO 

EO 

CO 00 

05 

CM 

© 

1C 

© 00 

© 

j 

o 

H 

CM 

CO 

eo 

o 

X- 

00 

05 O 

rH 

CO 

Ht< 

ic 

© A''* 

oo 


rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

-H Cl 

Cl 

G! 

CM 

Cl 

Cl Cl 

Cl 



05 

05 

05 

05 

05 

05 

05 

CO GO 

CO 

00 

oo 

00 

CO CO 

CO 


o 

C5 

o 

rH 

Cl 

CO 

Tfl 

1C 

CO X" 

GO 

© 

© 

rH 

<M © 

HT 


*"*■( 


rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH i-H 

rH 

rH 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl <M 

Cl 


O 

C5 

00 

i" 

© 

EC 

tT 

Cl 

f-i o 

05 

CO 

X" 

© 

IQ -+l 

© 


00 

05 

o 

rH 

Cl 

CO 


EO CO 

CO 

x~* 

oo 

© 

O -H 

Cl 


—a 



rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

Cl Cl 

Cl 


H 

Cl 

05 

© 

CO 

o 

x- 


Cl 05 

CO 

CO 

© X" 

Cl 

© 


X- 

X- 

00 

05 

o 

o 


Cl C l 

CO 


ic 

EC 

© X- 

X"* 


—H 





rH 

rH 

rH 

rH i—t 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH rH 

r~i 


CTO 

rH 


CO 

05 

>c 

rH 

X- 

CO 05 

CO 

Cl 

00 

hH © © 

Cl 


o 

O 

X— 

x~* 

CO 

05 

05 

o o 

rH 

Cl 

Cl 

© 

^ HU 

EC 










rH rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH rH 

rH 



05 

hH 

05 


05 


05 

-H 05 

CO 

00 

© 

CO 

© CO 

CO 

(■ 

(•'v 

Hft 

EC 

EC 

© 

© 

X" 

X- 

OO 00 

05 

© 

© 

© 

r— 1 rH 

Cl 


fH 











rH 

rH 

rH rH 

H 

d •>»»! «! 

1 

o 

1 1 
rH C? 

1 

CO 

1 

H-i 

EC 

1 

o 

C- CO 

1 

o 

1 

o 

rH 

i 

i i 

CO tH 

i 

>o 


rH 

rH 

»H 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH rH 

rH 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl Cl 

Cl^ 











































































9->4 

Jt 


THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


to 


O’ 




* 

r«0 

«0 

© 

to 

§ 


^3 


5S 

o 

H 



to 

to 

5S 

^3 


to 



55 

y 



H 

to X- 

o 

CO 

lO 

00 © 

CO 

to 

00 

© 







Cl 

r-H 

rH 

o 

cs 

00 

GO 

xr— 

co 

tD 

to 







H 

OS 

o 

rH 

CM 

CM 

CO 


tD 

© 

X- 

00 

* 







rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

iH 

rH 

rH 

rH 







£0 

CM Cs 

SO 

ID 

CM 

OS 

co 


rH 

00 

to 







x- 

to 


CO 

CM 

o 

© 

00 

X- 

tD 








H 

CO 

cs 

o 

rH 

cx 

CO 

CO 


tD 

co 

X— 









H 

rH 

rH 

rH 

^H 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 







G9 

o 


x- 

_i 

to 

cs 

© 

X— 

rH 

to 

© 








CM 

o 

os 

X- 

to 


ox 

rH 

© 

X- 







H 

CO 

CS 

o 

o 

rH 

ox 

© 


to 

to 

© 









i—i 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 








lo 



CO 

CO 

ox 

CM 

rH 

rH 

o 

© 







r-H 

OS 

X- 

to 

CO 

rH 

cs 

X— 

tD 

© 

rH 

© 







H 

Jr- 

CO 

OS 

o 

rH 

rH 

CM 

CO 


tD 

tD 










rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

•H 

rH 

rH 

rH 








CM 

00 

CO 

00 

CO 

© 


© 


© 

to 







o 

to 

<M 

o 

OS 

to 

CM 

© 

X- 

to 

CO 

© 






ft 

H 

X- 

00 

OS 

cs 

o 

rH 

cx 

CM 

CO 


to 











rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 






T 

Ci 

O 

o 

o 

o 

o © 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 







O 

X- 


rH 

CO 

to 

O l 

© 

so 

CO 

© 






.2 

co 

X— 

Jt- 

GO 

Cs 

© 

© 

I—1 

rH 

<M 

CO 














rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

r- i 






s 

GO 

OS 


rH 

CO 


rH 

GO 


rH 

GO 

to 







SO 

CO 

o 

so 

CO 

© 

SO 

© 

© 

© 

co 






u 

CO 

so 

X- 

50 

00 

cs 

o 

© 

|H 

CM 

CX 

co 











rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 






<5 



00 

CM 

so 

rH 

to 

© 


CO 

cx 

X- 






2 
j a 



o 

Jt- 

00 

o 

so 

ox 

© 

tD 

cx 

00 






00 

so 

X- 

I- 

oo 

cs 

cs 

© 

© 

i—< 

cx 

cx 












rH 

rH 

tH 

rH 

rH 






3 

CO 

I- 


CM 

O X- 

»o 

CO 

© 

CO 

CO 

<M 

© 

CO 

cx 

© 

00 

1 

X- 

CO 

OS 

>o 

o © 

CM 

CO 

CO 

© 

to 

rH 

© 

cx 

00 

CO 


00 

to 

so 

SO 

X- 

00 

CO 

© 

© 

© 

© 

rH 

cx 

CX 

CO 

CO 











rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 


rH 


H 



X- 

CM 

X- 

CM 

SO 

rH 

co 

rH 

to 

© 

to 

© 


© 


© 


1C 


o 

to 

rH 

so 

CM 

X — 

CO 

00 


© 

to © 

to 

rH 

co 


CO 

to 

so 

so 

is- 

1- 

00 

GO 

© 

© 

© 

© 

rH 

cx 

cx 

CO 

CO 











rH 

rH 

r—1 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 


H 

o 

o 

o © 

o 

© 

© 

© 

© o 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 


o 

to 

o 

»o 

o 

‘O 

© 

to 

© 

»o 

© 

to 

© 

*o 

© 

to 


00 

1.0 

to 

so 

so 

X- 

X- 

CO 

00 

© 

© 

© 

© 

T—1 

rH 

CX 

Cl 












rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 


00 

o 

OS 

00 

X- 

so 

to 


CO 

cx 

rH 

© 

© 

00 

Jt- 

© 

to 


OS 

00 

CO 

CO 

GO 

CO 

00 

CO 

00 

CO 

GO 

cx 

X- 

cx 

X- 

cx 


00 


to 

to 

so 

so 

XT— 

XT' 

00 

00 

© 

© 

© 

© 

rH 

rH 

cx 













rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

\ 

C9 

o 

so 

CM 

00 


© 

SO 

CM 

00 

hH 

© 

co 

CM 

00 


© 


so 

o 

»o 

OS 


cs 

CO 

00 

cm 

X- 

CM 

© 

rH 

to 

© 

to 


CO 


>0 

to 

to 

CO 

CO 

XT— 

X- 

CO 

00 

© 

© 

© 

© 

rH 

rH 

1 













rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

1 ski 

o 

rH 

Cl 

CO 


to 

CO X— 

00 

© 

© 

rH 

cx 

CO 


to 

si9&iid' r j 

rH 

rH 

rH 

fH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

|H 

rH 

pH 

cx 

CM 

cx 

cx 

CX 

cx 


To find the amount of lumber any log will make: 

First, find the Length of the Log, in the first or left hand 
column—then on the top of the page to the right, find the 
diameter, and under the same will be found the quantity of 
Lumber your log will make ; calculated for any length from 
10 to 25 feet, and for any diameter from 12 to 44 inches. 














































CONTENTS. 


PART FIRST. 

. PAGE, 


Introduction, - . 5 

Explanation of Technical words, ... 9 

On the first principles of Mechanics, - - - 11 

The Principle of the Lever, - - - - - 13 

Inclined Plain, - - - - - 18 

Pulley, - ... . - 19 

Motion, - - - - 20 

Central Forces, - - ^ - - 24 

Friction, or, Resistance to Motion, - - - 26 

Table of the Surfaces of Contact without Urgents, - 32 

Table of the Results of Experiments on Friction, with 

Urgents—By M. Morin, - - - 33 

Table of Diameters of First Movers, - - - 39 

Table of Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, Areas 

and side of Equal Squares, - - - 40 

Table of Geometrical Definitions of the Circle and its 

Parts,.- 41 

Center of Percussion and Oscillation, 43 

Hydrostatics—Introduction, 44 

On the Upward and Downward Pressure of Water, 46 

Specific Gravity, - - - ---48 

Table pf Specific Gravities, - - - - 51 

Hydrodynamic Power of Water Wheels, - - 52 

On the Action and Re-action of Water, as applied to 

Water Wheels, - - - - 53 

On the Construction of the Combination Re-action 

Water Wheel, - - 59 

Table of Velocities of Water Wheels, per minute, with 

Heads of from 4 to 30 feet, - - 63 


i 




226 THE AMERICAN MILLER. 


Table of the number of Inches of Water necessary to 
drive one Run of Stone, for Grist or Saw Mills on 

heads of 4 to 30 feet, - - - - 64 

Table showing the required length of Overshot and 

Breast Wheels, on heads of 10 to 30 feet, - - 65 

Howd’s Direct Action Water Wheel, - 
Direction for making the same, - - - 67 

FART SECOND. 

Remarks on the Culture of Grain, &c., - - - 73 

Table of Grain grown in the United States, - - 76 

On the Quality of French Burr, as best adapted for 

Grinding Wheat and Corn, - - - - 77 

Directions for preparing new stones for grinding, - 82 

Directions for laying out the Dress in Mill Stones, - 85 

A special treatise on the different Millstone Dresses now 

in use, with practical remarks on their action, - 87 

Directions for making Furrows on the most approved 

plan, - - - - - - - 95 

Directions for staffing and cracking the face of the Mill- 

o o 

stone, - - 96 

On the best size of Millstones for different water powers, 98 
Practical remarks on Grinding Wheat and Corn, 100 

Remarks on Indian Corn, as an article of foreign con¬ 
sumption, - - - - - 103 

On the construction of Merchant Bolts on the old plan, 105 
Description of a new arrangement of the Merchant Bolts 

on the most approved plan, - - - - 107 

Directions for making Bolting Cloths of all descriptions, 109 
On the proper size of Mill Picks for dressing stones, 109 
Composition for Tempering Caststeel Mill Picks, 110 

On the use of the Proof Staff, - - - - 111 

On the amount of help necessary to be employed in a 
Mill of four run of stones, with their duties respec¬ 
tively, - - - > - - 113 

Hydraulics, as pertaining to the practical Millwright, 115 
Powers of Gravity, Percussion or Impulse, with the re¬ 
action attachment, - - - - 119 




THE AMERICAN MILLER 


227 




Remarks to the Millwright on the necessity of economy 
in planning and arranging the machinery of Flourino- 
and Grist Mills, - - - - ° 

On Bedding the stone, - - - - 

To find the number of revolutions of the Water Wheel 
per minute, - - - * 

To find the velocity of the stone per minute, 

Rule to find the Diameters of all pitch circles, 

To find how many revolutions the stone makes for one 
of the water wheel, ----- 
On Machinery, - - 

Rule for constructing the Conveyor, 

On the construction of the Mill Dam, 

On the different kinds of Smut Machines now in use, 
with rules for making the same, - 
Remarks on a late invention for introducing air between 
Millstones when grinding, 

Description of the Author’s Grain Dryer, patented 1850, 
Rules for the purchase of Wheat for Millers’ use, 

The proper method' for fitting the Bale and Driver to 
the Millstone, - 

Remarks on Packing Flour, - - 

Table for Packing Flour, ----- 
Remarks on branding flour in barrels, - 
Mauk’s Patent Bolt, , 

On the Inspection of Flour, 

Report on the Breadstufts of the United States, their 
relative value, and the injury which they sustain by 
transportation, warehousing, <fcc. &c .— By Lewis C. 
Beck, M. D. 

Analysis of Wheat Flour, - 

Results of the Analyses, - - 

Table for Reckoning the Price cf Wheat, 

Steam as applied to propelling Mills, - 
On the Construction of the Saw Mill, 

Table for Measuring Saw Logs, - 


124 

127 

130 

130 

131 

132 

132 

133 

134 


139 


142 

145 

149 

154 

157 

158 

158 

159 

160 


164 

194 

204 

207 

219 

220 
223 


% 


o 


it- 


THE WHEAT TABLE. 

A NOTE. 


Through inadvertence \heprice of the bushels 
in the Wheat Table, is stated in cents at the 
head of the column, when the calculations were 
made for pcncc t New York currency. In refer- 
ing to the Table, this must be borne in mind. 


it 























* 

















•• 






* 






• « . .• * 

• 









* 




























- .. - 






. 








cW 
































x I 

'C\ o • * 

^ rdXW/h/, 

J.LH^X r- ° «. sj - A\\^s\//A o | 

O 





< 


* <*> 



^ * % 4 
% ** c oi 


*V^v 

' * ^ 

<K 4< 7. « s -G v "O 'o'. 7- A, 

/0^ . • 1 ' a -• ^O <& c 0 " 0 - - . 

>- *-o« :^m>\ -o/ :*Sfe ^ 0 « i 

o x 0 V*. - * «l O. 

o ^"n*^** • o ‘ZyZZZlZ-#* . ^ o 

% V .. *•■•• *•■•• .«*■ 

V vLaL\ c* ,0 V *> \> 








o M o 


O o ^ 0 

A 0 <V ° 

A° *!*•' > \ •■ c 

v-> o. 



* 
o 

^ * * ’ * O *'•••* <G^ <# c> *'<> . '»» A 

°o ,** .*J44% ** ,o* « • i : • * ^o y 

* *£» 4 * d^W/y^ * is*, -v 4 ' 

„ -"o' v or ° 

\0*A - * < O^ 

A 0 <5> * - - ■> * ^ O a 

^ ► « SJ . ^ . V aVL-tW* ^ 

•* w *'. /*»• **» # . 








> V *■ * • .Tf v- * *£> 'Z) * v V* «! 

%> * • • * 5.0 O r o , k * /\ >■ /■ 

xCV o c°“°* <*> 

♦ *7 0 a jfVT^b^ * ^ «j^ • r-c^^tv /*^ 

. »> «*> 4 * JRvJ///y> > * -O o <5 a\\\[)\* t, , ^ a 

•. •*•<>* .Q& i«S«- "ol? :*iAf®0:". •^o't .'< 

*. k» rf* t(ku\\\\S> *> * *>*> « <C^////.l ly v 4-’ ‘ 

<i P O ^ '0sVjJ y * a ^*, * N* _ * 

/i v o a, o r\ ^ ci* % <i k O 

^ ^ * * ° ^ 0 <P>, *'*,5* «,^ O 


*. % ^ ,♦’*•'. -> 

• <5n ^ ♦aWa* ^4 

. •* J- \ '•efi®’* ^ ~\ 

^ '•- ■*' a <v ' - .o*-’ \ ... , 

°o a 4 .<4;♦- ^ ,o' .•''*♦ "o, 

's 5 <Kxvvirv^ -f •/ 0 a ^ 




° <7 

v 


^° •% . 

N « v '‘•^•’* A°° \ 

^ v c\ o V ^ v • ** ^> 

C. . J?' l% ^ * 










